1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) (36 page)

5
. In addition to the articles by Pulak, Bass, and Bachhuber, see the list in Monroe 2009: 11–12, with additional discussion on 13–15, 234–38; also Monroe 2010. Information now updated slightly courtesy of lecture by Cemal Pulak, delivered at an academic conference in Freiburg, Germany, in May 2012.

6
. Weinstein 1989.

7
. See, most recently, Manning et al. 2009.

8
. Payton 1991.

9
. RS 16.238+254; translation following Heltzer 1988: 12. See also, among many discussions, Caubet and Matoian 1995: 100; Monroe 2009: 165–66.

10
. RS 16.386; translation following Monroe 2009: 164–65.

11
. Singer 1999: 634–35. For some of the correspondence exchanged between the kings at this time, see Nougayrol 1956.

12
. Bryce 2005: 234.

13
. Bryce 2005: 277.

14
. Bryce 2005: 236, with earlier references.

15
. Bryce 2005: 236–37.

16
. Translation following Bryce 2005: 237–38, following Gardiner.

17
. Bryce 2005: 235.

18
. Bryce 2005: 238–39.

19
. Bryce 2005: 277–78.

20
. Translation following Bryce 2005: 277, following Kitchen.

21
. Bryce 2005: 277, 282, 284–85.

22
. Translation following Bryce 2005: 283, following Kitchen.

23
. A lengthier version of the discussion in this section on Troy and the Trojan War, as well as in the next chapter, can be found in Cline 2013, which was written at the same time as this book and contains some of the same material and language, albeit in different order and with a more detailed discussion in places. In both cases, the discussions
represent an edited version of material first published, with additional references, by the present author in the Course Guide accompanying the fourteen-lecture recorded audio series entitled
Archaeology and the Iliad: The Trojan War in Homer and History
(Recorded Books/The Modern Scholar, 2006) and is reproduced here by permission of the publisher.

24
. See discussion in Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 140–44.

25
. Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 101–22.

26
. Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 101–22.

27
. Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 101–22.

28
. Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 101–22.

29
. See now the discussion, with further references, in Cline 2013. See also, in general, Strauss 2006.

30
. See, e.g., Wood 1996; Allen 1999; now Cline 2013.

31
. Mountjoy 1999a: 254–56, 258; see also Mountjoy 1999b: 298–99; Mountjoy 2006: 244–45; Cline 2013: 90.

32
. See now discussion in Cline 2013: 87–90.

33
. See, e.g., Loader 1998; also Shelmerdine 1998b: 87; Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 388; Maran 2009: 248–50; Kostoula and Maran 2012: 217, citing Maran 2004.

34
. Hirschfeld 1990, 1992, 1996, 1999, 2010; Cline 1994: 54, 61; Cline 1999b; Cline 2007a: 195; Maran 2004; Maran 2009: 246–47.

35
. Cline 1994: 50, 128–30. See now also recent mentions in Monroe 2009: 196–97, 226–27.

36
. Cline 1994: 60, 130 (Cat. nos. E13–14); Palaima 1991: 280–81, 291–95; Shelmerdine 1998b.

37
. Cline 1994: 60, 130; see also Palaima 1991: 280–81, 291–95; Knapp 1991. See now Yasur-Landau 2010a: 40, table 2.1, conveniently itemizing in a single table these and the following names, which are then placed on a map in his fig. 2.3.

38
. Cline 1994: 50, 68–69, 128–31 (Cat. nos. E3, E7, E15–18); see most recently Latacz 2004: 280–81, who cites Niemeier 1999: 154 for additional occurrences of mentions in the Pylos tablets of women from Lemnos and Chios, as well as perhaps Troy or the Troad.

39
. Cline 1994: 50, 129 (Cat. nos. E8–11); previously Astour 1964: 194, 1967: 336–44; now also Bell 2009: 32.

40
. Cline 1994: 35, 128 (Cat. nos. E1–2); Shelmerdine 1998a.

41
. Zivie 1987.

42
. The discussion below of the Exodus is an edited version of material first published, with additional references, by the present author in Cline 2007b and is reproduced here by permission of the publisher.

43
. Diodorus Siculus 1.47; translated by Oldfather 1961.

44
. See discussion in Cline 2007b: 61–92, with further references; also Miller and Hayes 2006: 39–41; Bryce 2012: 187–88.

45
. Translation following Pritchard 1969: 378.

46
. See discussion in Cline 2007b: 83–85, with further references; also Hoffmeier 2005, as well as Ben-Tor and Rubiato 1999.

47
. See discussion in Cline 2007b: 85–87, with further references.

48
. Such claims are mostly, but easily, found on the Internet; see, e.g.,
http://www.discoverynews.us/DISCOVERY%20MUSEUM/BibleLandsDisplay/Red_Sea_Chariot_Wheels/Red_Sea_Chariot_Wheels_1.html
(last accessed May 27, 2013).

49
.
On the dating of the eruption, which has generated much scholarly debate over the past several decades, see Manning 1999, 2010, with further references.

50
. Cline 2007b, 2009a, 2009b, with references.

51
. Zuckerman 2007a: 17, citing and quoting from earlier publications by Garstang, Yadin, and Ben-Tor. See now also Ben-Tor 2013.

52
. Zuckerman 2007a: 24.

53
. Ben-Tor and Zuckerman 2008: 3–4, 6.

54
. Ben-Tor 1998, 2006, 2013; Ben-Tor and Rubiato 1999; Zuckerman 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2009, 2010; Ben-Tor and Zuckerman 2008; see now Ashkenazi 2012; Zeiger 2012; Marom and Zuckerman 2012.

55
. See discussions, with further references, in Cline 2007b: 86–92; Cline 2009a: 76–78; and see also Cline 2009b.

56
. Bryce 2009: 85.

57
. Kuhrt 1995: 353–54; Bryce 2012: 182–83.

58
. Bryce 2005: 314.

59
. Porada 1992: 182–83; Kuhrt 1995: 355–58; Singer 1999: 688–90; Potts 1999: 231; Bryce 2005: 314–19; Bryce 2009: 86; Bryce 2012: 182–85. Note that Singer places the beginning of Tukulti-Ninurta’s reign at 1233 BC, rather than 1244 BC.

60
. On the battle against the Hittites, at Nihriya in northern Mesopotamia, see Bryce 2012: 54, 183–84, among others. On the possible gift sent to Boeotian Thebes, see initial discussion in Porada 1981, briefly discussed in Cline 1994: 25–26.

61
. Translation following Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 61; previously Bryce 2005: 315–19.

62
. Translation following Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 63.

63
. I have discussed this in a number of my previous publications; see most recently Cline 2007a: 197, with further references.

64
. Translation following Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 61; previously Bryce 2005: 309–10.

65
. See discussion in Beckman, Bryce, and Cline 2011: 101–22; previously Bryce 1985, 2005: 306–8.

66
. Bryce 2005: 321–22; Demand 2011: 195. See now also Kaniewski et al. 2013 on a possible drought in Cyprus itself at this time, on which more below.

67
. Translation following Bryce 2005: 321, after Güterbock, as well as discussion on 321–22 and 333; see also similar translation by Beckman 1996b: 32 and the discussion by Hoffner 1992: 48–49.

68
. Translation following Beckman 1996b: 33; see also Bryce 2005: 332; Singer 2000: 27; Singer 1999: 719, 721–22; Hoffner 1992: 48–49; Sandars 1985: 141–42.

69
. Bryce 2005: 323, 327–33; Singer 2000: 25–27; Hoffner 1992: 48–49.

70
. Singer 2000: 27.

71
. Phelps, Lolos, and Vichos 1999; Lolos 2003.

72
. Bass 1967; Bass 1973.

73
. Bass 1988; Bass 2013.

74
. Cline 1994: 100–101.

C
HAPTER
F
OUR

1
. Yon 2006: 7. The scholarly literature on these sites is immense, but Yon 2006 is fairly brief and very accessible, as is previously Curtis 1999. On the political and
economic history of Ugarit, see also the good overview and summation in Singer 1999. See also Podany 2010: 273–75.

2
. Caubet 2000; Yon 2003, 2006: 7–8.

3
. See Yon 2006: 142–43, for a picture of these Canaanite jars in situ, with brief discussion and further references.

4
. Dietrich and Loretz 1999; Yon 2006: 7–8, 44, with further references.

5
. Yon 2006: 7–8, 19, 24; Lackenbacher 1995a: 72; Singer 1999: 623–27, 641–42, 680–81, 701–4. The Amarna Letters sent by the kings of Ugarit are EA 45 and 49, and others may include EA 46–48; see Moran 1992.

6
. Van Soldt 1991; Lackenbacher 1995a: 69–70; Millard 1995: 121; Huehnergard 1999: 375; Singer 1999: 704. See now, more recently, Singer 2006: esp. 256–58; Bell 2006: 17; McGeough 2007: 325–32.

7
. Singer 1999: 657–60, 668–73; Pitard 1999: 48–51; Bell 2006: 2, 17; McGeough 2007; Bell 2012: 180.

8
. Yon 2006: 20–21, with specific objects illustrated and discussed on 129–72, including 168–69 for the sword; Singer 1999: 625, 676; McGeough 2007: 297–305.

9
. Documented on tablet RS 17.382 + RS 17.380; see Singer 1999: 635; McGeough 2007: 325.

10
. Lackenbacher 1995a; Bordreuil and Malbran-Labat 1995; Malbran-Labat 1995. Previous discussions about the end of Ugarit include those by Astour 1965 and Sandars 1985.

11
. Yon 2006: 51, 54; McGeough 2007: 183–84, 254–55, 333–35; Bell 2012: 182–83. On Cypro-Minoan, see Hirschfeld 2010, with references.

12
. Yon 2006: 73–77, with references; van Soldt 1999: 33–34; Bell 2006: 65; Mc-Geough 2007: 247–49; Bell 2012: 182.

13
. Ugaritic text RS 20.168; see Singer 1999: 719–20; original publication in Nougayrol et al. 1968: 80–83.

14
. Malbran-Labat 1995; Bordreuil and Malbran-Labat 1995; Singer 1999: 605; van Soldt 1999: 35–36; Yon 2006: 22, 87–88; Bell 2006: 67; McGeough 2007: 257–59; Bell 2012: 183–84. See now also Bordreuil, Pardee, and Hawley 2012.

15
. RS 34.165. Lackenbacher in Bordreuil 1991: 90–100; Hoffner 1992: 48; Singer 1999: 689–90.

16
. Singer 1999: 658–59; see now also Cohen and Singer 2006; McGeough 2007: 184, 335.

17
. Singer 1999: 719–20, summarizing previous reports; Bordreuil and Malbran-Labat 1995: 445.

18
. Lackenbacher and Malbran-Labat 2005: 237–38 and nn. 69, 76; Singer 2006: 256–58; Cline and Yasur-Landau 2007: 130; Bryce 2010; Bell 2012: 184. The letter from the Hittite king (probably Suppiluliuma II) is RS 94.2530; that from the top Hittite official is RS 94.2523.

19
. RS 88.2158. Lackenbacher 1995b: 77–83; Lackenbacher in Yon and Arnaud 2001: 239–47; see discussion in Singer 1999: 708–712; Singer 2000: 22.

20
. RS 34.153; Bordreuil 1991: 75–76; translation following Monroe 2009: 188–89.

21
. RS 17.450A; see discussion in Monroe 2009: 180, 188–89.

22
. Malbran-Labat 1995: 107.

23
. Millard 1995: 121.

24
. Singer 1999: 729–30 and n. 427; Caubet 1992: 123; Yon 2006: 22; Kaniewski et al. 2011: 4–5.

25
.
Yon 1992: 111, 117, 120; Singer 1999: 730; Bell 2006: 12, 101–2.

26
. Ugarit text RS 86.2230. See Yon 1992: 119; Hoffner 1992: 49; Drews 1993: 13; Singer 1999: 713–15; Arnaud in Yon and Arnaud 2001: 278–79 Yasur-Landau 2003d: 236; Bell 2006: 12; Yon 2006: 127; Yasur-Landau 2010a: 187; Kaniewski et al. 2010: 212; Kaniewski et al. 2011: 5.

27
. KTU 1.78 (RS 12.061); see now Kaniewski et al. 2010: 212 and Kaniewski et al. 2011: 5, citing Dietrich and Loretz 2002. Contra Demand 2011: 199, citing an earlier publication by Lipinski, the destruction is unlikely to have been as late as 1160 BC.

28
. See, e.g., Sandars 1985.

29
. See Millard 1995: 119 and Singer 1999: 705, with earlier references; also van Soldt 1999: 32; Yon 2006: 44; Van De Mieroop 2007: 245; McGeough 2007: 236–37; McGeough 2011: 225.

30
. Yon 1992: 117; Caubet 1992: 129; McClellan 1992: 165–67; Drews 1993: 15, 17; Singer 2000: 25.

31
. Courbin 1990, quoted in Caubet 1992: 127; see also Lagarce and Lagarce 1978.

32
. Bounni, Lagarce, and Saliby 1976; Bounni, Lagarce, and Saliby 1978, cited by Caubet 1992: 124; see also Drews 1993: 14; Singer 2000: 24; Yasur-Landau 2010a: 165–66; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 12.

33
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 1 and see fig. 2. For earlier discussions of the discoveries made at this site, see Maqdissi et al. 2008; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 2011; Vansteenhuyse 2010; Bretschneider, Van Vyve, and Jans 2011.

34
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 1–2.

35
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 1.

36
. See Badre 2003 and the discussion following; also Badre et al. 2005; Badre 2006, 2011; Jung 2009; Jung 2010: 177–78.

37
. Jung 2012: 115–16.

38
. Drews 1993: 7 n. 11, 15–16; cf. previously Franken 1961; Dothan, T. 1983: 101, 104; Dever 1992: 104. See now also Gilmour and Kitchen 2012.

39
. See brief discussion by Weinstein 1992: 143, with earlier references.

40
. See brief overview and discussion in Dever 1992: 101–2.

41
. Loud 1948: 29 and figs 70–71; cf. also Kempinski 1989: 10, 76–77, 160; Finkelstein 1996: 171–72; Nur and Ron 1997: 537–39; Nur and Cline 2000: 59.

42
. Ussishkin 1995; also personal communication, May 2013.

43
. Weinstein 1992: 144–45; Ussishkin 1995: 214; Finkelstein 1996: 171; cf. Loud 1939: pl. 62 no. 377.

44
. See most recently Feldman 2002, 2006, and 2009; Steel 2013: 162–69. Previously, Loud 1939; Kantor 1947.

45
. Weinstein 1992: 144–45; Ussishkin 1995: 214; Finkelstein 1996: 171; see now also Yasur-Landau 2003d: 237–38; Zwickel 2012: 599–600.