Black Mass: How Religion Led the World into Crisis (35 page)

19.
Cohn,
The Pursuit of the Millennium, p.
150.

20.
David S. Katz and Richard H. Popkin,
Messianic Revolution: Radical Religious Politics to the End of the Second Millennium
, London, Allen Lane, 1999, p. 71.

21.
For a profound analysis of the Russian Revolution as the continuation of a western tradition of religious revolt that included the English Civil War, see Martin Malia,
History’s Locomotives: Revolution and the Making of the Modern World
, ed. Terence Emmons, New Jersey, Yale University Press, 2006, especially Chapters 6 and 11.

22.
E. J. Hobsbawm,
Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries
, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1959.

23.
E. P. Thompson,
The Making of the English Working Class
, rev. edn, London, Penguin, 1968, p. 52.

24.
ibid., pp. 419, 423–4.

25.
Carl L. Becker,
The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers
, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1932, p.123.

26.
For a systematic exploration of millenarianism and utopianism, see Ernest Lee Tuveson,
Millenniumand Utopia
, New York, Harper and Row, 1964.

27.
S. N. Eisenstadt, in his
Fundamentalism, Sectarianism and Revolution: The Jacobin Dimension of Modernity
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000, has presented an illuminating interpretation of modern politics in which Jacobinism is central.

28.
Michael Burleigh,
Earthly Powers: Religion and Politics in Europe from the French Revolution to the Great War
, HarperCollins, London, 2005, p. 101.

29.
See Paul Wood, ‘Hunting “Satan” in Falluja hell’, BBC News, 23 November 2004.

30.
Claes G. Ryn explores the affinities of neo-conservatism with Jacobinism, in
America the Virtuous: The Crisis of Democracy and the Quest for Empire
, Somerset NJ, Transaction Publishers, 2003.

31.
George W. Bush, Presidential remarks, National Cathedral, 14 September 2002.

1.
Edmund Stillman and William Pfaff,
The Politics of Hysteria: The Sources of Twentieth-Century Conflict
, London, Victor Gollancz, 1964, p. 29.

2.
On genocide in the Belgian Congo, see Adam Hochschild,
King Leopold’s Ghost
, New York, Houghton Mifflin, 1998.

3.
For Arendt’s analysis of totalitarianism, see her
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(1951), new edition published by Harcourt, New York, 1973. Arendt’s view of Eichmann is presented in
Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil
, New York, Penguin, 1963.

4.
For Eichmann’s role in the Holocaust, see David Cesarani,
Adolf Eichmann: His Life and Crimes
, London, Heinemann, 2004.

5.
Bertrand Russell,
The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism
, London, Unwin Books, 1920, p.55.

6.
Leon Trotsky, ‘Literature and Revolution’,
www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1924/lit-revo/ch08

7.
For a discussion of Enlightenment thinking in contemporary transhumanism, see Bryan Appleyard,
How to Live Forever or Die Trying: On the New Immortality
, London and New York, Simon and Schuster, 2007, Chapter 8.

8.
For an authoritative account of the assault on science in the USSR and Soviet experiments on human subjects, see Vadim J. Birstein,
The Perversion of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science
, Cambridge MA, Westview Press, 2001, pp. 127–31.

9.
For a discussion of Ivanov’s role, see Kirill Rossiianov, ‘Beyond Species: Ilya Ivanov and his Experiments on Cross-Breeding Humans with Anthropoid Apes’,
Science in Context
, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002, Issue 15, pp. 277–316.

10.
I am not sure who coined the expression ‘the Enlightenment project’, but it came into currency with Alasdair MacIntyre’s seminal study,
After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory
, London, Duckworth, 1981, where it is defined and discussed in Chapters 4–6.

11.
See
Journey of Our Time: The Journal of the Marquis de Custine
, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001.

12.
See Karl Wittfogel,
Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power
, New York, Random House, 1981.

13.
A. Nekrich and M. Heller,
Utopia in Power: A History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present
, London, Hutchison, 1986, p. 10.

14.
N. Berdyaev,
The Origin of Communism
, London, Geoffrey Bles: The Centenary Press, 1937, p.228.

15.
On Lunacharsky and the Russian messianist tradition, see David G. Rowley, ‘Redeemer Empire: Russian Millenarianism’,
The American Historical Review
, vol. 104, no. 5, 1999.

16.
Lenin’s statement is quoted by Thomas P. Hughes,
American Genesis: A Study of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm 1870–1970
, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 2004, p.251.

17.
V. I. Lenin,
A Contribution to the History of the Question of Dictatorship
,
www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920

18.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,
Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League
,
www.marxists.org/marx/works/communist-league/1850/

19.
L. Trotsky,
Their Morals and Ours
,
www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1938

20.
L. Trotsky,
Hue and Cry Over Kronstadt
,
www.marxists.org/archive/trostsky/works/1938/1938-kronstadt.htm

21.
See George Leggett,
The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police
, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1981, p. 178.

22.
See Anne Applebaum,
Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps
, London and New York, Allen Lane, 2003, p.17.

23.
For the relative sizes of Tsarist and Soviet security apparatuses, see John J. Dziak,
Chekisty: A History of the KGB
, New York, Ivy Books, 1988, pp. 35–6. For numbers of executions in late Tsarist and early Soviet times, see ibid., pp. 191–3.

24.
On links between German South-West Africa and the Nazis, see Applebaum,
Gulag
, pp. 18–20.

25.
Lesley Chamberlain,
The Philosophy Steamer: Lenin and the Exile of the Intelligentsia
, London, Atlantic Books, 2006, pp. 1–2, 4.

26.
Dziak,
Chekisty
, p.3.

27.
Harold Laski and Edmund Wilson are cited in Nekrich and Heller,
Utopia in Power
, p. 257.

28.
On the human cost of the Great Leap Forward, see Jung Chang and Jon Halliday,
Mao: The Unknown Story
, London, Jonathan Cape, 2005, Chapter 40, especially pp. 456–7. See also Jasper Becker,
Hungry Ghosts: China’s Secret Famine
, London, John Murray, 1996, pp. 266–74.

29.
For Mao’s campaign against sparrows, see Chang and Halliday,
Mao
, p. 449.

30.
Christopher Clark,
Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia,
1600–1947
, London, Allen Lane, 2006, presents a comprehensive history of the Prussian state.

31.
Nekrich and Heller,
Utopia in Power, p.
661.

32.
Leszek Kolakowski,
Main Currents of Marxism
, London and New York, W. W. Norton, 2005, p.962.

33.
K. R. Popper,
The Open Society and Its Enemies
, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1945, Volume 1, Chapter 9.

34.
Varlam Shalamov, ‘Lend-Lease’, in
Kolyma Tales
, trans. John Glad, London and New York, Penguin, 1994, pp. 281–2. For a systematic account of Kolyma, see Robert Conquest,
Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps
, Oxford and New York, Oxford University, Press, 1979.

35.
Robert Conquest,
The Great Terror: A Reassessment
, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 1990.

36.
For an account of the Soviet ecological disaster, see Murray Fesbach and Alfred Friendly Jr,
Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature Under Siege
, London, Aurum Press, 1992.

37.
Lewis Namier,
Vanished Supremacies
, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1958.

38.
See Isaiah Berlin, ‘The Counter-Enlightenment’, in Henry Hardy and Roger Hausheer (eds.)
The Proper Study of Mankind
, London, Chatto and Windus, 1997, pp. 243–68.

39.
See Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer,
Dialectic of Enlightenment
, trans. John Cumming, London, Verso, 1979.

40.
I discuss the political risks of Romanticism in my
Two Faces of Liberalism
, Cambridge and New York, Polity Press and the New Press, 2000, pp. 119–22.

41.
For a more extended discussion of Nietzsche’s critique of the Enlightenment, see my
Enlightenment’s Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age
, London, Routledge Classics, 2007, pp. 161–6.

42.
Karl Kraus,
Half-Truths & One-and-a–Half Truths
, ed. Harry Zohn, Montreal, Engendra Press, 1976, p. 107.

43.
For a discussion of Voltaire’s political relativism, see my
Voltaire and Enlightenment
, London, Phoenix, 1998, pp. 36–47.

44.
I have examined the Positivists in greater detail in
Al Qaeda and What it Means to be Modern
, 2nd edn, London, Faber and Faber, 2007, Chapter 3.

45.
See Michael Burleigh,
Earthly Powers: Religion and Politics in Europe fromthe French Revolution to the Great War
, London, HarperCollins, 2005, pp. 226–7.

46.
Richard Popkin, ‘The Philosophical Bases of Modern Racism’, in Richard A. Wilson and James E. Force (eds.),
The High Road to Pyrrhonism
, Indianapolis and Cambridge, Hackett Publishing Company, 1980, p. 85.

47.
Immanuel Kant, ‘Of National Characteristics, So Far as They Depend upon the Distinct Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime’,
http://www.public.asu.edu/∼jacquies/kant-observations.htm

48.
See John Stuart Mill,
On Liberty and Other Essays
, ed. John Gray, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 80.

49.
Popkin, ‘Philosophical Bases of Modern Racism’, p. 89.

50.
See Michael Coren,
The Invisible Man: The Life and Liberties of H. G. Wells
, London, Bloomsbury, 1993, p.66, for this quote from Wells’s
Anticipations
(1901).

51.
John Toland,
Adolf Hitler
, New York, Doubleday, 1976, p. 702.

52.
Richard J. Evans,
The Third Reich in Power
, London and New York, Allen Lane, 2005, pp. 506–7.

53.
See Pierre Drieu La Rochelle,
Chronique Politique, 1934–1942
, Paris, Gallimard, 1943.

54.
Evans,
The Third Reich in Power
, p. 534.

55.
Norman Cohn,
Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion
, London, Serif, 1996, p. xii. For an account of the medieval Christian demonization of witches and heretics, see Cohn’s
Europe’s Inner Demons: The Demonization of Christians in Medieval Christendom
, London, Pimlico, 2005.

56.
Michael Burleigh,
The Third Reich: A New History
, London, Pan Books, 2000, p.7.

57.
For the comparisons of Hitler and John of Leyden by Klemperer and Reck-Malleczewen, see Burleigh,
The Third Reich
, pp. 4–5.

58.
F. A. Voigt,
Unto Caesar
, London, Constable, 1938, pp. 49–50. I owe my acquaintance with Voigt’s work to a conversation with Norman Cohn.

59.
See James R. Rhodes,
The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution
, Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1980, pp. 29–30.

60.
Joseph Goebbels,
Michael: Ein deutsches Schicksal in Tagebuchblättern
, 6th edn, Munich, Franz Eher Nachf, 1935, pp. 96–7. The passage is cited in Rhodes,
The Hitler Movement
, p.115.

61.
Dmitri Merezhkovsky,
The Secret of the West
, trans. John Cournos, London, Jonathan Cape, 1931.

62.
Aurel Kolnai,
The War Against the West
, London, Victor Gollancz, 1938.

63.
Eric Voegelin,
The New Science of Politics
, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1952, pp. 113, 125–6.

64.
Olivier Roy,
Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah
, London, Hurst, 2004, p. 44.

65.
For the role of Shariati and the influence of Heidegger on his thought, see Janet Afary and Kevin B. Anderson,
Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism
, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 2005.

66.
On al-Qaeda and Mahdism, see Timothy R. Furnish, ‘Bin Ladin: The Man who would be Mahdi’,
The Middle East Review
, vol. IX, no. 2, spring 2002.

67.
Kaveh L. Afrasiabi, ‘Shiism as Mahdism: Reflections on a Doctrine of Hope’,
www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1126.html

68.
Ahmed Rashid,
Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia
, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2000, pp. 176–7. Rashid’s comment is cited by Robert Dreyfuss in his excellent
Devil’s Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam
, New York, Metropolitan Books, 2005, p.326.

69.
I discuss the modern character of radical Islam and its relations with globalization in
Al Qaeda and What it Means to be Modern.