3.
Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza in
Scientific American
(1991), as reported by S. Connor, ‘On the Origin of Speeches’,
Independent on Sunday
, 10 Nov. 1991.
4.
Dr Steve Jones, BBC Reith Lectures 1991, published as
The Language of the Genes:
Biology, History and the Evolutionary Future
(London, 1993).
5.
See Introduction, nn. 42,43, and 68; also J. Szucs, ‘Three Historical Regions of Europe’, in
Tőrténelmi Szemle
(Budapest), 24 (1981), 313–69, published as
Les Trois Europes
(Paris, 1985); H. C. Meyer,
Mitteleuropa in German Thought and Action, 1815–45
(The Hague, 1955); and O. Halecki,
The Borderlands of European Civilization
(New York, 1952).
6.
See Braudel,
La Méditerranée
(see Introduction, n. 16).
7.
Robert Fox,
The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People
(London, 1991).
8.
See David Kirby,
Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period
(London, 1990); also J. Fitzmaurice,
The Baltic: A Regional Future?
(London, 1992).
9.
Neil Ascherson,
Black Sea
, p. 267 (London and New York, 1995).
10.
Ellsworth Huntingdon,
Civilization and Climate
(1915; 3rd edn., New Haven, Conn., 1924);
The Mainsprings of Civilization
(New York, 1945).
11.
Arnold J. Toynbee,
A Study of History
(1934), abridged (London, 1960), 151.
12.
Michael Anderson,
The Birth of Europe
, op. cit. 97.
13.
C. Stringer and R. Grun, ‘New Light on Our Shadowy Ancestors’,
Independent on Sunday
, 1 Sept. 1991.
14.
W. J. Perry,
The Growth of Civilization
(London, 1925), 34.
15.
See Barry Cunliffe, ‘Aegean Civilization and Barbarian Europe’, in
The Roots of European Civilization
(Chicago, 1987), 5–15; also J. Howell, ‘The Lake Villages of France’, ibid. 42–53.
16.
See Gerald S. Hawkins,
Stonehenge Decoded
(London, 1970).
17.
Colin Renfrew,
Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
(London, 1987).
18.
Marija Gimbutas, in G. Cardona
et al
. (eds.),
Indo-European and Indo-Europeans
(Philadelphia, 1970), 54; quoted by Renfrew,
Archaeology and Language
17.
19.
As suggested by Jones,
The Language of the Genes
.
20.
On European onomastics, see G. Semerano,
Le origini della cultura europea: rivelazioni della linguistica storica
(Florence, 1984).
Cnossos, 1628
BC
21.
See Jacquetta Hawkes, ‘The Grace of Life’, in
The Dawn of the Gods
(London, 1968), 73–156, where ‘the feminine spirit of Minoan life’ is contrasted with ‘the masculine Achean spirit’ of later times.
22.
Sir Arthur Evans,
The Palace of Minos: A Comparative Account of the Early Cretan Civilization
(4 vols., London, 1921–36), i. 17. See also S. Horwitz,
Find of a Lifetime
(London, 1981), and A. C. Brown,
Arthur Evans and the Palace of Minos
(Oxford, 1981).
23.
On the Anemospelia sacrifice, discovered in 1979, see Peter Warren, ‘The Minoans and Their Gods’, in Barry Cunliffe,
Origins
, op. cit. 30–41.
24.
Gerald Cadogan, ‘A Theory That Could Change History’,
Financial Times
, 9 Sept. 1989.
CHAPTER II
1.
Eliza Marian Butler, ‘The Myth of Laocoön’, in
The Tyranny of Greece over Germany
(Cambridge, 1935), 43–8.
2.
The Oxford Book of English Verse
(1939). Nos. 632,614,608.
3.
Maurice Bowra,
Ancient Greek Literature
(Oxford, 1933), 9; Walter Savage Landor, quoted ibid.; J. C. Stobart,
The Glory That Was Greece: A Survey of Hellenic Culture and Civilization
(1911; rev. edn. London, 1933), introduction.
4.
Gilbert Murray,
The Legacy of Greece
(Oxford, 1922), Introduction.
5.
From Aeschylus,
The Persians
, in D. Grene and R. Lattimore (eds.),
Complete Greek Tragedies
(Chicago, 1959), i. 232–3.
6.
George Grote,
History of Greece
(London, 1907), xii. 303.
7.
From Jules Michelet,
Histoire Romaine
(1834), bk. ii.
8.
Rainer Maria Rilke, ‘Die Sonette an Orpheus’,
The Penguin Book of German Verse
, ed. L. Forster (London, 1957), 403–4.
9.
Bernard Williams, quoted by Oliver Taplin,
Greek Fire
(London, 1989), 170.
10.
Sappho, quoted ibid. 141.
11.
Glycon, trans. Peter Jay; see
The Greek Anthology: A Selection in Translation
, ed. Jay (London, 1990).
12.
Simonides, ‘On the Spartans at Thermopylae’, of which there are innumerable translations. See Earl of Cromer,
Paraphrases and Translations from the Greek
(London, 1903), no. 33.
13.
Quotations by, respectively, Oliver Taplin, George Steiner, and Friedrich Nietzsche,
The Birth of Tragedy
(1872): in Taplin, ‘Outstaring the Gorgon’, in
Greek Fire
, 36–61.
14.
Antigone
, 332 ff., in Sophocles,
The Theban Plays
, trans. E. F. Watling (London, 1947), 135–6.
15.
Sir Ernst Gombrich,
The Story of Art
(Oxford, 1952), 52.
16.
Ibid,
passim
.
17.
K. J. Dover,
Greek Homosexuality
(London, 1978).
18.
See David M. Halperin, ‘Sex Before Sexuality: Pederasty, Politics, and Power in Classical Athens’, in M. B. Duberman et al. (eds.),
Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past
(New York, 1989; London, 1991), 37–53.
19.
See John Boswell, ‘Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories’, ibid. 17–36.
20.
Thucydides, from ‘Pericles’ Funeral Speech’,
The Peloponnesian War
, trans. Rex Warner (London, 1954), ii. 4.
21.
Dithyramboi, Fragment 76,
The Works of Pindar, ed
. L. R. Famell, (London, 1932) iii, 171
Syracusae, Year 1, Olympiad 141
22.
See M. Finley, ‘Five Tyrants’, in
Ancient Sicily: To the Arab Conquest
, vol. i of a
History of Sicily
written with D. Mack Smith (1968), abridged C. Duggan (London, 1986).
23.
Livy,
History of Rome
, xxiv. 34 (Loeb Library).
24.
After ibid.
25.
From Plutarch,
Marcellus
, xv (after Loeb).
26.
ibid. xix. 3.
27.
Ch. M. Danov, ‘The Celtic Invasion and Rule in Thrace in the Light of Some New Evidence’,
Studia Celtica
, 10/11 (1975–6), 29–40.
CHAPTER III
1.
Cato,
De Re Rustica
, 1.
2.
Quoted by, among others, the Venerable Bede, and by Edward Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
, ch. 17.
3.
Reginald Blomfield, in R. W. Livingstone (ed.),
The Legacy of Greece
(Oxford, 1924), 406.
4.
From Thomas Babington Macaulay, ‘Horatius’, in
The Lays of Ancient Rome
(1842); W. H. Henley (ed.),
Lyra Heroica
(London, 1921),
147–63
.
5.
Appian,
Romaika
, bk. 132, quoted by B. H. Warmington,
Carthage
(London, 1964), 260.
6.
Rudyard Kipling, ‘A Song to Mithras’ (Hymn of the XXX Legion,
AD
c.350), in
The Definitive Verse of Rudyard Kipling
(London, 1940; repr. 1989), 523–4.
7.
Aeneid
, vi. 851–3.
8.
W. De Burgh,
Legacy of the Ancient World
(London, 1936), ch. ii, ‘The Reception of Roman Law’.
9.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 9.
10.
Virgil,
Georgics
, ii. 490; iii. 284;
Eclogues
, xi. 32; i. 66;
Aeneid
, i. 362.
11.
See Gilbert Highet, ‘Vergil’, in
Poets in a Landscape
(London, 1959), 55–81.
12.
Horace,
Odes
, ii. 3;
Ars Poetica
, 139;
Epistles
, 11, 2, 45;
Odes
, xxx. 1.
13.
Ovid,
Ars Amatoria
, ii. 107.
14.
Theodor Mommsen,
The History of Rome
, English trans. (London, 1890), iv. 90.
15.
Ronald Syme,
The Roman Revolution
(Oxford, 1939), p. vii.
16.
Ibid. 11.
17.
Ibid. 201.
18.
Suetonius,
The Twelve Caesars
, trans. Robert Graves (London, 1957), on Augustus, 51–108.
19.
Ibid. 149–79.
20.
Ibid. 209.
21.
Ibid. 223.
22.
Ibid. 285.
23.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 3.
24.
Ibid.
25.
Adapted from J. B. Bury,
A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
(London, 1908), 438–48.
26.
The Meditations of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
, trans. Robert Graves (London, 1955), iii. 21.
27.
Ibid. vi. 50,48.
28.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 10.
29.
Ibid. ch. 15.
30.
See G. Vermes,
Jesus and the World of Judaism
(London, 1983); D. Flusser,
Judaism and the Origins of Christianity
(Jerusalem, 1988); and M. Baigent and R. Leigh,
The Dead Sea Scrolls Deception
(London, 1991).
31.
With thanks to the Al-Shalom Reformed Synagogue, Glencoe, Ill.
32.
Irenaeus,
Adversus Heraeses
,
III
. iii. 1–2, quoted by J.-B. Duroselle,
Histoire du catholicisme
(Paris, 1949), 8.
33.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 16.
34.
C. P. S. Clarke,
A Short History of the Christian Church
(London, 1929), 69; also J. F. Bethune-Baker,
An Introduction to the Early History of Christian Doctrine
(London, 1903). There are, in fact, two different formulas of the Nicene Creed—the shorter version issued at Nicaea in 325 and a longer version, also known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, possibly drawn up at the General Council of 381. See World Council of Churches,
Confessing One Faith…: the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
(Geneva, 1991).
The Bosporus, 4 November 1079
AUC
35.
Jacob Burckhardt,
The Age of Constantine the Great
(1852), trans. M. Hadas (New York, 1949), 343–53.
36.
Eusebius of Caesarea (c.260–340),
Vita Constantini
, quoted by Burckhardt,
Constantine the Great
, 231. See also
The Essential Eusebius
, trans. Colm Luibhaid (New York, 1966).
37.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, chs. 14,16.
CHAPTER IV
1.
See Mortimer Wheeler,
Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers
(London, 1954).
2.
Salvian of Marseilles, c.440, quoted by Jacques Le Goff,
Mediaeval Civilization, 400–1500
(Oxford, 1988).
3.
Simeon Potter,
Language in the Modern World
(London, 1960), ch. 7, ‘The Indo-European Family’. See also Harold Goad,
Language and History
(London, 1958).
4.
G. Labuda,
Żródła, sagi, i legendi do najdawniejszych dziejów Polski
(Warsaw, 1961) contains studies of Alfred the Great, the Gotho-Hunnic Wars, the
Widsith
, and the
Chanson de Roland
. See also J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen,
The World of the Huns
(Berkeley, Calif., 1973).
5.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 42. For the 4,600 villages, he quotes ‘a curious MS fragment of the year 550 in the library at Milan’ (n. 11). On the subject of
panicum milium
he comments: ‘In the wealth of modern husbandry, our millet feeds poultry, not heroes’ (n. 12).
6.
Ibid. ch. 30.
7.
Ferdinand Lot,
La Fin du monde antique et le début du Moyen Âge
(Paris, 1951), 3; also ‘Le Régime des castes’, 115 ff.
8.
Charles Oman,
The Dark Ages,
AD
476–918
(6th edn., London, 1919), 29.
9.
Lot,
La Fin du monde antique
, 311.
10.
Oman,
The Dark Ages
, 207.
11.
See Dimitri Obolensky,
The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453
(London, 1971).
12.
Koran
, sura 5, verse 3.
13.
Steven Runciman,
A History of the Crusades
(Cambridge, 1953), i. 3.
14.
From the
Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam
, ed. H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers (London, 1961), 16,491.
15.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 35.
16.
La Chanson de Roland
, cxlix. 2000–9;
The Song of Roland: The Oxford Text
, trans. Roy Owen (London, 1972), 76.
17.
Henri Pirenne,
Mediaeval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade
(Princeton, NJ, 1925), 27; also his
Mahomet and Charlemagne
(London, 1939).
18.
Gibbon,
Decline and Fall
, ch. 23.
19.
Historiae Ecclesiasticae Francorum
, ii. 27, trans. J. H. Robinson in
Readings in European History
, i (Boston, 1904), 51.
20.
Bede,
A History of the English Church and People
, trans. Leo Shirley-Price (London, 1955). i. 27, p. 76.