Good Calories, Bad Calories (89 page)

“Such genes would be advantageous…”: Diamond 2003. “exquisitely efficient…” and “Your genes match nicely…”: Brownel and Horgen 2003:6. “are trying to find these genes…”: Gladwel 1998.

“thrifty mechanisms to defend…”: Ravussin 2005.

Neel initial y proposed: Neel 1962.

Sickle-cel anemia and malaria: Rucknagel and Neel 1961.

“might have, during a period…”: Neel 1962.

“If the considerable frequency…”: Ibid.

“a relatively recent phenomenon”: Neel 1982. Russel ’s disease list: Russel 1975:268. Hrdli ka’s: Hrdli ka 1908:182–83. Joslin concluded: Joslin 1940.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs studies: Cohen 1954; Parks and Waskow 1961.

Glucose intolerance in Yanomamo: Spielman et al. 1982. “The high frequency…”: Neel 1999.

“overindulge in…”: Neel 1982.

“The data on which…”: Neel 1989. “composition of the diet…”: Neel 1999.

“To me, it would be…”: Hirsch 1978:3.

“exquisitely efficient…”: Brownel and Horgen 2003:5–6. “conditions of unpredictably alternating…”: Diamond 2003.

“paradise for hunting…”: Eaton et al. 1988:29. “conspicuously wel -nourished…:” Cohen 1989:96. Footnote. Duncan and Burns 1998:89–90,150.

The !Kung study: Lee and DeVore 1968. Lee noted: Lee 1968 (“the third year…,” “some relatively abundant…,” and “have to walk…,” 39).

“levels of decay…”: Cohen 1989:86. When hunting failed: Livingstone 2001: 32–33. Resiliency of hunting and gathering: See, for instance, Lee and Devore 1968. Studies of human remains: Cohen 1989:105–42; Cohen 1987:261–85. “the worst mistake…”: Diamond 1987.

“a uniquely low occurrence…”: Diamond 2003.

Average 150-pound man: Wertheimer 1965. “Survival of the species…”: Cahil and Renold 1965.

“facile and unlikely” and “major objection…”: Rothwel and Stock 1981: 335–36.

“When this animal…”: Zimmet et al. 2001.

Schmidt-Nielsen’s sand-rat experiments: Schmidt-Nielsen et al. 1964.

Monkeys in captivity: Hamilton and Brobeck 1965. Perhaps 60 percent: Bodkin et al. 1993; Jen et al. 1985. “This is on the kind…”: Interview, Barbara Hansen. Footnote. Strasser 1968.

Mammalian species that fatten regularly: Young 1976 is a good review.

“opening a can of Crisco…”: Interview, Irving Zucker.

Genetical y pre-programmed: Mrosovsky 1976; Mrosovsky 1985 (“It is very hard to prevent…”). Lipectomy studies: Mauer et al. 2001.

Regulation of type and location of fat: See Young 1976.

Select out rather than in: See, for instance, Sims 1976.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN:

HUNGER

Epigraph. “Khrushchev, too, looks…”: Liebling 2004:485.

Benedict’s semi-starvation studies: Benedict et al. 1919 (fourteen to twenty-one hundred calories, 688–89).

His subjects lost the weight: Benedict et al. 1919 (“a continuous gnawing…,” 360; “almost impossible to keep warm…,” 259; reduced energy expenditure, 694–95; blood pressure, 371; pulse rate, 383; anemia, 364–65; concentration, 680; “a decrease in sexual interest…,” 640; “the whole picture…,” 698).

“One general feature…”: Benedict et al. 1919:683–85.

Keys set out to replicate: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950 (“guinea pigs,” 64; “semi-starvation diet,” 74).253 1,570 calories, “The major food items served…”: Ibid.:74. Footnote. Ibid.

Keys’s conscientious objectors lost on average: Ibid. (body fat lost, 175–76; physiological responses, “As starvation progressed…,” 827–28; “…wise man…,” 290).

“behavior and complaints”: Ibid.:819–53, 881–904.

Five of the subjects: Ibid. (“character neurosis,” 880; “semi-starvation neurosis,” 894; “…psychosis,” 880; “weeping…,” 885; “he suffered a sudden…,”

887; “…drastic cuts…” “his neurotic manifestations…,” 890; fifth subject, 891).

Relaxation of dietary restriction: Ibid.:76–78, 842–53 (“personality deterioration…,” 891.) 255 Last weeks of experiment: Ibid. (“the prodigious level…”

and “though incapable…,” 143; weight and body fat, 182).

“conventional reducing diets”: Van Gaal 1998.

“persistent clamor…”: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950:835. Dramatic reduction in energy expenditure: See also Grande et al. 1958.

“diminishes proportionately…”: Strang and Evans 1929. Observation reported by Bray: Bray 1970. See also Bray 1969; Brown and Ohlson 1946. “There is no investigator…”: Garrow 1978:89.

Hirsch’s experiments: Leibel et al. 1995.

“al the physiological…”: Interview, Jules Hirsch.

“of al the damn…”: Ibid.

“eating fewer calories…”: USDHHS and USDA 2005:13.

Stunkard’s analysis: Stunkard and McLaren-Hume 1959 (“remarkably ineffective…” and “only 12%…”). “paradox” and “the widespread assumption…”: Anon. 1983.

“Attempts at weight reduction…”: Stunkard 1973.

The Cochrane Col aboration review: Pirozzo et al. 2002. The USDA analysis: Kennedy et al. 2001:419 (table 11). Only one study tracked participants for more than a year: Jeffery et al. 1995. The WHI report on weight: Howard, Manson, et al. 2006.

“dietary therapy remains…”: Van Gaal 1998:875–76.

“reduction of caloric intake…”: Maratos-Flier and Flier 2005:541–42.

Sixty or ninety minutes: USDHHS and USDA 2005:viii.

“while unusual y strenuous…”: Wilder 1933.

“He wil have to climb…”: Newburgh 1942:1085.

“Vigorous muscle exercise…”: Rony 1940:55–56. “There has been ample demonstration…”: Feinstein 1960:365. Footnote. Wil ett and Stampfer 1998:276.

Romance of Mayer’s background: Mayer 1955; Gershoff 2001. Interview, Albert Stunkard.

Mayer extol ing virtues of exercise: Mayer and Stare 1953. “debunked…”: Tolchin 1959. “almost nil”: Mayer 1953b.

Mayer on high-school girls: Johnson et al. 1956. “The laws of thermodynamics…”: Mayer 1968:125–26.

Girls at summer camp: Bul en et al. 1964. Infants: Rose and Mayer 1968. “The striking phenomenon…” and “some individuals…”: Mayer 1975b:78.

The changing-American-diet story: See Brewster and Jacobson 1978.

Descriptions of typical meals: Mayer 1968:77–78. “frequently assumed prodigious…”: Ross 1987:35–36. “fish, poultry, or game…”: Quoted in ibid. “The 75-cent special…” and “were two or more courses…”: Schwartz 1986:91.

“most important factor…”: Mayer 1973a. “The development of obesity…”: Mayer 1968:83.

“It is a common observation…”: Rony 1940:80.

“For a long period…”: Mayer 1965.

Mayer’s observations on exercise and weight control: Mayer 1968:69–84 (“necessarily,” 69). “If exercise is decreased…”: Quoted in Galton 1961.

Mayer’s rat study: Mayer et al. 1954. West Bengal study: Mayer et al. 1956. Footnote. “J. Mayer has since…”: Mayer and Thomas 1967.

As John Garrow noted: Garrow 1978:48–49. “too little”: IOM 2002:884.

“As much as Dr. Mayer…”: Glenn 1965.

“false idea…” and “facts overwhelmingly demonstrate…”: Mayer 1968:69.

Mayer primary author of Health Service report: Brody 1966.

“The successful treatment…”: Anon. 1969:54. “make weight melt…”: Mayer and Goldberg 1984. “contrary to popular belief…”: Mayer and Goldberg 1983.

“While it is general y agreed…”: Gilmore 1977. Seventeen thousand Harvard alumni: Paffenbarger et al. 1978. Exercisers smoke less, attend more to diet: See, for instance, Chave et al. 1978.

“Diligent exercisers…”: Cohn 1980. Brody said exercise “the key”: Brody 1983a. “essential” to weight-loss program: Beck 1990. “when exercise isn’t enough…”: Stockton 1989.

Björntorp reported: Björntorp 1976. NIH conference report: Rodin 1979 (“the importance of exercise…”, 57). Pi-Sunyer reviewed the evidence: Segal and Pi-Sunyer 1989. Danish investigators: Janssen et al. 1989.

Male rats and exercise: Thomas and Mil er 1958. Mayer’s rats on motorized treadmil : Mayer et al. 1954. The use of shock grids, rats retired from exercise programs: Stern and Lowney 1986.

Hamsters and gerbils: Sclafani 1981a (“permanent increases”).

“When surveying the scientific literature…”: Stern and Lowney 1986.

Ninety minutes of moderate activity: Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 2005.

Finnish review: Fogelholm and Kukkonen-Harjula 2000.

“enemies of exercise” and “pseudo-science”: Mayer 1969.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN:

PARADOXES

Epigraph. “The literature on obesity…”: Bruch 1957:19.

“Those who consume more…”: Burros 2004a. “chronic condition…”: Stunkard 1973:32.

Hirsch’s alternative hypotheses: Hirsch 1985.

“for the vast majority…”: USDHHS 2001:1.

Fat deposition different in men and women: See Bauer 1941. “The energy conception…”: Grafe 1933:148.

“similarity may be as striking…”: Bruch 1957:150. “It is genetics…”: Friedman 2004. “Infants born to diabetic mothers…”: Select Committee 1976:137

–38.

Sheldon commented: Sheldon and Stevens 1942 (“It does not take a science…,” 2; “…emaciated endomorphs,” 8).

McGovern’s committee in 1977: Select Committee 1977c (“I want to be sure…” “constantly hear anecdotes…,” 222).

Sims’s studies: Data and observations from these are scattered over numerous publications; the account given here is taken mostly from Sims 1976; Sims et al. 1973; Goldman et al. 1976; Sims et al. 1968.

“marked differences…”: Sims et al. 1973. “lost weight readily…”: Quoted in Bennett and Gurin 1982:19. “in response to both…”: Sims 1976:393.

Bouchard’s twin study: Bouchard et al. 1990. Levine reported: Levine et al. 1999.

“Genetic factors…”: Bouchard et al. 1990.

Animal husbandry: See Mayer 1968:45–46.

“Up until that moment…”: Interview, Ingrid Schmidt.

Mayer studied obese mice: Mayer 1968:49.

Tanner and Chambers: Tanner 1869b:220–21. Footnote. Ibid.:222–23.

The paradox developed: For a history of this era of nutrition research, see, for instance, Du Bois 1936:93–125; McCol um 1957:115–33. “The amount of information…”: Atwater 1888.

Rubner discovered: Rubner 1982 (“the effect of specific…,” 36). For a biography of Rubner, see Chambers 1952.

Benedict and Atwater’s experiments: Atwater and Benedict 1899.

Von Noorden on obesity: See von Noorden 1907a. “His work contains…”: Bruch 1957:25.

Von Noorden on endogenous and exogenous obesity: von Noorden 1907a: 693–700.

“The ingestion of a quantity…”: Ibid.:693.

“far the most common…”: Ibid.:697.

“an extremely popular…”: Rosenberg 1981.

Magnus-Levy had reported: Magnus-Levy 1907:261–62. Lean body mass also increases: See, for instance, James et al. 1978. Footnote. Von Noorden 1907a: 699–701.

Metabolic rate: Magnus-Levy 1907:262. “the metabolism of the individual…”: Stock and Rothwel 1982:39–40.

Benedict’s studies of basal metabolism: Benedict and Emmes 1915.

Bruch began her career: Bruch 1957:5–6.

Bruch published: Bruch 1940 (“The terms used…,” 747–48); Bruch and Touraine 1940. “Overeating was often vigorously…”: Bruch 1973:136.

“excessive eating…”: Bruch and Touraine 1940:141. “keep the child…”: Bruch 1973:136. “giving up [their]…”: Bruch 1944. Footnote. See, for instance, Brownel and Horgen 2004:8.

“perverted appetite…”: Newburgh and Johnston 1930b. “various human weaknesses…”: Newburgh and Johnston 1930a.

In 1942, Newburgh published: Newburgh 1942 (“endocrine disorder,” 1058–73; “his gluttonous habits…,” “without any effort…,” 1094–95).

By the end of Newburgh’s review: Ibid. (“it might be true…,” 1075; “a more realistic…,” 1074; “the secretions…,” “She does not resist…,” 1079).

“The work of Newburgh…” and “Newburgh answered that”: Anon. 1955a.

Fundamental flaw: Burros 2004a. Von Noorden’s proposition: Von Noorden 1907a:697. “excess calorie consumption…”: USDHHS 2001.

“If eating behavior did not…”: Bennett 1987. Big eaters: See, for instance, Waterlow 1986.

Salient question in obesity research: Bennett 1987. Footnote. Ibid.

“is energy balance achieved…”: Ibid. “An obese person…”: Rony 1940:47–48.

“On the few occasions…”: Durnin and Passmore 1967:132–33.

“Talking of a man…”: Boswel 1992:1086.

We could find two such men: See, for instance, Widdowson 1962. Stunkard’s 1959 analysis: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. “Eventual y, calorie balance…”: Keys and Brozek 1953:311.

“This procedure alters…”: Friedman 2004.

“Theories that diseases are…”: Sontag 1990:55. “playable game”: Kuhn 1970:90.

Von Noorden sought: Von Noorden 1907a:694–97.

“As long as we have…”: Interview, Kel y Brownel . “Our culture’s apparent obsession…”: Hil and Peters 1998.

“why then do we not…”: Quoted in Rony 1940:201. Footnote. Starbucks Coffee Company 2006.

Stunkard wrote: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. Mayer also ridiculed: Mayer 1955.

“Obesity is not a sin…”: Mayer 1968:165.

“Fat Americans…”: Spark 1973.

“the combination of weak wil …”: Newburgh and Johnston 1930a:212. “It exists in many non-obese…”: Rony 1940:63.

Ravussin’s basal-metabolic study: Ravussin et al. 1988. The observation in infants: Roberts et al. 1988. “If obesity was only caused…”: Ravussin 1993.

“I was shocked…”: Interview, Eric Ravussin.

“revolution in thinking…”: Whalen 1950. Never embraced this conclusion: See Bruch’s comments in Anon. 1955a:123–24.