Good Calories, Bad Calories (92 page)

“exquisitely sensitive”: See, for instance, Cahil and Owen 1968:112. See also Cahil et al. 1959; Wertheimer and Shafrir 1960; Zierler and Rabinowitz 1964. Even low levels of insulin: See Bray 1976a:121.

Fat cel s remain sensitive: See Berson and Yalow 1965; Neel 1982; McGarry 1992.

“greatly exaggerated” insulin response: Rabinowitz and Zierler 1962 and 1961.

Diabetogenous-obesity hypothesis: Von Noorden, 1907c:61–62. “We general y accept”: Berson and Yalow 1965:554.

“great biologic variation” and “insulin-secretory responses”: Ibid.:555.

Diabetologists and endocrinologists have speculated: Berson and Yalow 1965; McGarry 1992.

Neel’s three scenarios: Neel 1982.

Investigators measure on whole-body level: Interview, Eric Ravussin. ADA rationale for carbohydrate-rich diet: See, for instance, Franz et al. 2003.

Reported by Bierman and Brunzel : Brunzel et al. 1971.

Sims’s obesity studies: Bray 1972; Sims et al. 1973; Salans et al. 1974.

“mask” the diabetes: Von Noorden 1907c:61. Reproduced in animals: Maegawa et al. 1986. Brunzel refuses: Interview, John Brunzel .

“exaggerated tendency…”: Silver and Bauer 1931.

Lipoprotein lipase: For a review of how LPL regulates use of fatty acids, see, for instance, Newsholme and Leech 1983:246–99. A more recent review can be found in Merkel et al. 2002.

Orchestration of LPL activity: Arner et al. 1981; Smith 1985; Rebuffé-Scrive 1987; Arner and Eckel 1998.

LPL is where insulin and sex hormones interact: Smith 1985; Björntorp 1985. Testosterone and LPL: Rebuffé-Scrive 1987. Progesterone: Greenwood et al. 1987. Estrogen: Rebuffé-Scrive et al. 1986. Changing fat deposition with pregnancy: Lithel 1987; Greenwood et al. 1987.

Greenwood’s “gatekeeper hypothesis” and Zucker-rat studies: Greenwood et al. 1981.

LPL gatekeeper hypothesis, researchers reported: Kern et al. 1990; Eckel 2003; Arner and Eckel 1998 (“sufficiently altered”). During exercise: Kiens et al. 1989; Hardman and Herd 1998.

The open question, “habitual dietary carbohydrate…”: Yost et al. 1998.

“farinaceous and vegetable…”: Tanner 1869b:217. “Eating carbohydrates wil stimulate…”: discussion period in Gracey et al. 1991:194.

Cahil gave Banting Memorial Lecture: Cahil 1971 (“overal fuel control…” “The concentration of circulating…,” 785). “carbohydrate is driving insulin…,” “a calorie is a calorie…,” and the obese as fundamental y lazy: Interviews, George Cahil .

Kipnis fed ten “grossly obese” women: Grey and Kipnis 1971.

“necessity of restricting carbohydrates”: Schettler and Schlierf 1974:394–95.

Kipnis described his findings: Interview, David Kipnis.

Americans have become progressively heavier: Ogden et al. 2006. And more diabetic: CDC 2005. Gil man reported: Kim et al. 2006. On heavier infants and newborns, see also Schack-Nielsen et al. 2006 (Denmark); Surkan et al. 2004 (Sweden).402 “The baby is not diabetic…”: Interview, Boyd Metzger.

“If you overdo it…”: Quoted in Goldberg 2006. “Our observation of a trend…”: Kim et al. 2006.

Fatter babies more likely: See, for instance, Guo et al. 2002. “perpetuating the cycle…”: Dabelea et al. 2000.

“excessive glucose pulses”: Neel 1982.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE:

THE FATTENING CARBOHYDRATE DISAPPEARS

Epigraphs. “We need the help…”: Butterfield 1969:8. “It is incredible…”: Atkins 1973:8.

McGovern hearing on Atkins diet: Select Committee 1973b (“The Atkins diet is nonsense…,” 17).

McGovern hearings on “Sugar in the Diet…”: Select Committee 1973a.

“We weren’t thinking…”: Interview, Kenneth Schlossberg.

McGovern’s 1976 hearings on diet and disease: Select Committee 1976 (“overconsumption may be as serious…,” 9).

“Particularly overconsumption of the wrong things…”: Ibid.:10.

“general rule of thumb”: Ibid.:19–20.

“I think what we need…”: Ibid.

“carbohydrate-deficiency syndrome…”: Astrup et al. 1994. See also Golay and Bobbioni 1997.

Proceedings of the UCSF conference: Wilson 1969. “Positive caloric balance…”: Lepkovsky 1969:95. Navy “ketogenic” diet study: Piscatel i et al. 1969

(“significant weight loss,” 185; “Uniformly and without…,” 188).

Proceedings of Obesity Association of Great Britain conference: McLean Baird and Howard 1969. “This weight gain was control ed…”: Craddock in discussion period, in McLean Baird and Howard 1989:124.

Howard became interested in carbohydrate restriction: Interview, Alan Howard. “A common feature of al …”: Howard 1969:104.

Proceedings of the Paris conference: Apfelbaum 1973. The INSERM presentation: Debry et al. 1973 (“lowering the carbohydrate”).

Proceedings of the NIH conference: Bray ed. 1976a. Presentations on physical activity: Lutwak and Coulson 1976; Björntorp 1976. On behavioral modification: Stuart 1976; Stunkard 1976c. On fasting: Drenick 1976 (“our experiences…,” 358). Young on diet: Young 1976.

Young’s presentation: Young 1976 (“weight loss, fat loss…,” 365; “No adequate…,” 364).

Proceedings of the 1973 London conference: Burland et al. 1974. Salans talk: Salans et al. 1974. Horton’s presentation: Horton et al. 1974 (“It is clear that…,” 225). Horton added that it was probably hyperinsulinemia: Discussion period, in Burland et al. 1974:249. Yudkin gave talk: Yudkin 1974 (“reduce superfluous adiposity…,” 276).

Harry Keen said: Discussion period, in Burland et al. 1974:361.

“You strictly curtail…”: Tarr 1972:13.

Rating the Diets: Berland 1974 (“much to recommend it” “helpful…,” 222; “the difficult-to-treat…,” 220; “pay little attention…,” 347). Obesity authorities would recommend: Bray 1978:254; Dwyer 1985:185.

Yudkin’s “no bread, no butter” argument: Yudkin and Carey 1960 (“the inevitability of calories”); Yudkin 1972c. “It is highly implausible…”: Yudkin 1974:274.

The High-Calorie Way: Atkins 1972.

“Dr. Pennington may be…”: Barr et al. 1953:137. “trash,” “potential y dangerous”: Quoted in Yuncker 1962. “nutrition nonsense…”: White 1962. Written by Van Ital ie: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie. “bizarre concepts of nutrition…”: Anon. 1973.

Mayer wrote: Mayer 1968 (“as aware as…,” “favors fat…,” 67; “tend to become…,” 203). “biochemical mumbo-jumbo”: Mayer 1973b.

“because that’s what was being taught…”: Interview, Robert Atkins. See also Atkins 1972:21–24. Gordon’s JAMA article: Gordon et al. 1963 (“not to produce…” “The total caloric…,” 55). Atkins said attention caught: Interview, Robert Atkins.

Bloom had noted: Bloom and Azar 1963; Azar and Bloom 1963. Atkins lost twenty-eight pounds, AT&T experiment: Atkins 1972:26–27.

Atkins in Vogue: Pierson 1970. Footnote. Bliss 1976:35.

“produce too much insulin”: Atkins 1972:32.

“ten thousand…”: Ibid.:2–3. Cleave as inspiration: Interview, Robert Atkins.

Third claim: Ibid. (“cruel hoax…,” 95; “the balanced low-calorie diet…,” 84–5). Bray published: Bray 1969; Bray 1970 (“The Myth of Diet”).

Atkins’s polemic: Atkins 1972 (“resentment…,” 26; “a revolution…,” 6; “Martin Luther King…,” 294; “lobster with butter…,” 3; “As long as you…,” 15).

Stil man’s mega–best-sel er: Stil man and Baker 1967.

Fastest-sel ing book: Select Committee 1973b:iv. “chief consequence…”: Yudkin 1974:273–74.

Background on Van Ital ie, Stunkard, and Mayer: Stunkard 1976b:20; interviews, Albert Stunkard and Theodore Van Ital ie. Van Ital ie and White: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie. “The Missississi River…”: Interview, Gerold Grodsky.

McGovern’s committee hearings on obesity: Select Committee 1977e (“Thus, what I am saying,” 205–6).

“denunciation”: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie. See also his testimony in Select Committee 1977e:44–64.

“gross inaccuracies…”: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie. “We just despised…”: Interview, Albert Stunkard.

Van Ital ie and White’s critique: Anon. 1973. Mayer’s column: Mayer 1973b.

“a few hundred thousand…”: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie. Van Ital ie’s writings: Van Ital ie et al. 1976; Pi-Sunyer and Van Ital ie 1975; Van Ital ie 1978; Van Ital ie 1979: Van Ital ie 1980a; Van Ital ie 1980b. Fourth International Congress: Hirsch and Van Ital ie 1985. In Present Knowledge in Nutrition: Vasel i et al. 1984. No time to do research: Interview, Theodore Van Ital ie.

Van Ital ie on dietary therapy: Van Ital ie 1978 (“increasing recognition…,” 610); Van Ital ie 1979; Van Ital ie 1980b:250–51. Footnote. Van Ital ie 1980b:250–51).

Bray’s disagreements with Sims: See Sims and Danforth 1974. Bray’s conference résumé in the 1970s: Bray 1975; Bray 1976a; Bray ed. 1978; Bray 1979. Textbooks: Bray and Bethune 1974; Bray 1976b; Bray 1980.

Bray believed: Interview, George Bray. Bray’s treatment of Young in Obesity in Perspective: Bray 1975:43. “confirmation before they…”: Gwinup 1974:98.

“The data are suggestive…”: Bray 1976b:312–13. The report on the NIH conference: Bray 1975; Bray 1976a (research priorities and “gaps in our current knowledge,” 1–6). Leading proponent: See, for instance, Bray and Popkin 1998; Bray and Popkin 1999.

Novin’s 1977 presentation: Novin 1978 (“widespread popularity…”). Bray omitted mention: Bray 1978. Greenwood’s “gatekeeper” presentation: Greenwood 1985. Hirsch ignores implications: Hirsch 1985. Footnote: Interview, Donald Novin.

Bray would routinely equate: See, for instance, Brody 1981c; Select Committee 1977c:106, 207. “highly commendable”: Select Committee 1977e:206.

The MRC report: James 1977 (“commonly prescribed…,” 171).

“If such diets are truly…”: Quoted in Anon. 1973.

“The evergrowing list of diets…”: Select Committee 1977e:101. “The proliferation…”: Hirsch 1985:195.

“common factor of reducing…”: Mann 1974. “instant money nutritionists”: Stare 1987:xxx. “very lucrative…”: Whelan and Stare 1983:26. Footnote. Mayer 1968:160.

The Harvard nutrition department’s $5 mil ion building, and the “lead gift”: Stare 1987:xv–xvi. Stare as the defender of sugar and additives: Rosenthal et al. 1976. Footnote. Whelan and Stare 1983:194 (“not even remotely”).

Hil ’s articles in Science: Hil and Peters 1998; Hil et al. 2003. “reduce the likelihood…” and “The theory that…”: Hil n.d. Hil ’s conflict-of-interest statements: See, for instance, Foster et al. 2003:2089. Received $2 mil ion in “gifts” from Procter & Gamble: Information gathered via a Freedom of Information Act request to the University of Colorado in Sept. 2003. “dieter’s dream”: Potts 1987.

Hil received $300,000 from NIH: NIH Extramural Awards by State and Foreign Site: http://grants1.nih.gov/grants/award/state/state.htm. $5 mil ion: e-mail from Marguerite Klein, NIH program officer for the Atkins diet trial.

“A resolution…”: Novin 1978:31.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR:

THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS, III: HUNGER AND SATIETY

Epigraph. “There is only one way…”: Konner 2003:376.

Sidbury described: Sidbury and Schwartz 1975 (“rational basis” “minimum of anguish…,” 66). His three-page article: Schwartz and Sidbury 1974.

Sidbury noted: Sidbury and Schwartz 1975:66–67. Sidbury’s diet: Ibid.:67–69. Footnote. Ibid.

Dietary fat prolongs drainage of nutrients: Davidson and Passmore 1963:97.

Mayer’s glucostat hypothesis: Mayer 1968:20–24.

lipostatic regulation: Kennedy 1961. Set point: See Keesey 1980.

“weight loss triggers…”: Stunkard 1980:9. “It is not appealing…”: Quoted in Rovner 1986. Mysterious mechanism: Davis and Wirtshafter 1978.

The more fundamental criticism: This idea, and that of the settling point, are in ibid.

“black hole”: Interview, Donald Novin.

“In human beings and animals…”: Richter 1976:224.

Experimental observations on hunger, thirst, and palatability: Ibid. (“As a result…,” 198).430 “Rats wil make every…”: Ibid.:210. “Food acceptance and the urge…”: Adolph 1947:122. Footnote. Rol s and Barnett 2000.

“phenomenal…”: Bel isle et al. 2003. “incredibly bril iant”: Interview, Stephen Woods. Le Magnen’s life and career: Le Magnen 2001.

Rats ate discrete meals: See Le Magnen 1976. See also Le Magnen 1971, his seminal paper on the physiological psychology of hunger.

Two fundamental observations: Le Magnen 1971:213–19. “quantitative deficiencies…”: Adolph 1947:122.

“Al increase or decrease…”: Le Magnen 1971:220.

While they’re sleeping: Ibid.

“The restitution…”: Ibid.:238. “spare”: Ibid.:243.

“indirect and passive consequences…”: Le Magnen 1981:315.

Insulin is the driver: Le Magnen 1976:99–100.

Several variations of the hypothesis: Le Magnen 1984; Toates and Booth 1974; Friedman and Stricker 1976.

Three propositions: Friedman and Stricker 1976 (“adequate for them…,” 413).

The simplest possible explanation: Ibid. (“Hunger appears,” 424). “The primitive goal”: Hoebel and Hernandez 1993:43.

We’re not much more complicated than insects: Hoebel and Hernandez 1993; Lepkovsky 1973. “feeding behavior removes…”: Stricker 1978.

“Energy metabolism”: Friedman and Stricker 1976:413.

“harmony of tissue metabolisms”: Ibid.:413.

What the body regulates: Le Magnen 1984.

Le Magnen demonstrated this: Le Magnen 1981.

“It is not a paradox…”: Le Magnen 1984:517.

Food availability most important to fertility: Bronson 1988:88. Body fat, as commonly believed: Frisch and McArthur 1974. Availability of metabolic fuels: Schneider and Wade 1989 and Wade and Schneider 1992.

Wade and Schneider explained: Wade and Schneider 1992:246–47.

Nicotine as weight-loss drug: Filozof et al. 2004.

Excess calories not enough to explain weight gain: Perkins 1993. Rodin reported: Rodin 1987. Physical activity: Perkins 1993.

Nicotine and LPL: Chajek-Shaul et al. 1990; Perkins 1993; Sztalryd et al. 1996; Carney and Goldberg 1984. Fenfluramine and LPL: Deshaies et al.

1994.

The adjustable regulator: See Mrosovsky 1985:45–46.

Woods and Porte observed: Woods and Porte 1976:274. Seasonal weight variations in hibernators: Le Magnen 1988: Florant et al. 1985.

Seasonal variations in insulin levels: Fahlen et al. 1971; Behal et al. 1984. In LPL activity: Donahoo et al. 2000. Spring and fal weight changes: See, for instance, Andersson and Rossner 1992.