Our Black Year (41 page)

42
jumped by nearly 73 percent to $791 million.
... Ibid., 18.

42
at least $75,000 has increased 47 percent since 2005.
. . . Todd Wasserman, “Report Shows a Shifting African-American Population,”
Brandweek,
January 12, 2010, 1.

42
terms as ‘mammy,' ‘pickaninny,' ‘coon,' and ‘nigger.'”
. . . Robert E. Weems Jr.,
Desegregating the Dollar: African-American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 1.

43
war-related industries and other manufacturing.
... “Great Migration,” Encyclopedia of Chicago,
http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/545.html
.

43
services that African American companies produced.
. . . Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 10.

43
to take business away from Black companies.
... Ibid., 18.

43
Blacks' lingering social and psychological hangups. ”
. . . Ibid., 27.

43
African American pioneers in corporate America. ”
. . . Ibid., 3.

43
“buxom, broad-faced, grinning mammies. ”
. . . Ibid., 33.

43
“darky,” and “Pickaninny” in advertising.
. . . Ibid.

44
$1.5 billion more than the national income of Canada.
... Ibid., 34.

44
Dodgers owner Branch Rickey, Professor Weems writes.
... Ibid., 3.

45
and a degree of glamour for the same dollar. ”
. . . Ibid., 74.

46
in a culture that was angry at its powerlessness.
. . . Ibid., 80–90.

46
African Americans spent about $750 million in 1977.
. . . Ibid., 93.

46
substance, to place similar warnings on their labels.
... Ibid., 94–95.

47
insurance carrier meant one was “moving up. ”
. . . Ibid., 95–96.

47
without the corporations returning the favor.
... Robert E. Weems Jr., “African American Consumerism Since the 1960s: Spending Power or Spending Weakness?” paper presented at annual meeting of Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2010, 8.

47
was the downright paltry sum of $512,193.
. . . Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 112.

47
causes in African American and Hispanic communities.
... Ibid.

48
Estée Lauder decided to pay attention to it.
... Grayson Mitchell, “Battle of the Rouge,”
Black Enterprise
(August 1978): 23–29.

48
in the United States were Black-owned is shocking.
... Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 122, 125.

49
phenomenon have been white businessmen.”
. . . Weems, “African American Consumerism Since the 1960s,” 5–6.

50
the power to produce, as well as to consume.
... Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 131.

66
racism—however nuanced—they experience.
... Myra Croasdale, “Racial Fatigue: Minority Doctors Feeling the Pressure,”
American Medical News
, July 23–30, 2007,
http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2007/07/23/prsa0723.htm
;
material also obtained from abstract of Marcella Nunez-Smith, Leslie A. Curry, JudyAnn Bigby, David Berg, Harlan M. Krumholz, and Elizabeth H. Bradley, “Impact of Race on the Professional Lives of Physicians of African Descent,”
Annals of Internal Medicine
146, no. 1 (January 2, 2007): 45–51,
http://www.annals.org/content/146/1/45.abstract
.

66
This drives Black physicians from the profession.
... Nunez-Smith et al., “Impact of Race on the Professional Lives of Physicians of African Descent.”

66
13,000 below the number of Hispanic physicians.
... “The Black Physician Workforce,” National Medical Association, October 2009,
http://www.nmanet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2&Itemid=3
.

67
the current ratio is 73 per 100,000 people.
. . . V. Rao and G. Flores, “Why Aren't There More African-American Physicians? A Qualitative Study and Exploratory Inquiry of African-American Students' Perspective on Careers in Medicine,”
Journal of the National Medical Association
99, no. 9 (September 2007): 986–93,
http://www.nmanet.org/images/uploads/Journal/OC986.pdf
, 986.

67
only 4.2 percent of medical school faculties. ”
. . . “Missing Persons: Minorities in the Health Professions: A Report of the Sullivan Commission on Diversity in the Healthcare Workforce” (Durham, NC: Sullivan Commission, September 2004), 2,
http://www.aacn.nche.edu/media/pdf/sullivanreport.pdf
.

67
health care, the quality of which is not improving.
... “2009 National Healthcare Disparities Report,” US Department of Health and Human Services,
http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nhdr09/nhdr09.pdf
, 3, 4, 6, 7.

67
eighty-three thousand African Americans every year.
. . . David Satcher, “What If We Were Equal,”
Health Affairs
(March 2005),
http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/24/2/459.full
.

71
nonsense to do what building we should want. ”
. . . Quintard Taylor, “Maria W. Stewart Advocates Education for African-American Women,”
Blackpast.org
,
http://www.blackpast.org/?q=1832-maria-w-stewart-advocates-education-african-american-women
, 1.

72
Walker, who became Maria's mentor.
. . . Cheryl R. Jorgensen-Earp, “Maria W. Miller Stewart, Lecture Delivered at Franklin Hall,”
Voices of Democracy
(September 2006),
http://umvod.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/jorgensen-earp-stewart.pdf
, 15, 18, 19.

72
whispers of something more diabolical persisted.
. . . Ibid., 20.

72
W. E. B. Du Bois later gave broader exposure.
... Ibid., 21, 15.

72
She died in 1879.
. . . Ibid., 34–35.

72
her 2006 piece for the journal
Voices of Democracy. . . . Ibid., 36.

73
the Free African Society, founded in 1787 in Philadelphia.
... Juliet E. K. Walker,
The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship
(New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1998), 85–86.

73
that had not been produced from slave labor. ”
. . . Juliet E. K. Walker, ed.,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 90.

73
began in the mid-1820s.
. . . Ruth Ketring Nueremberger, “The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest Against Slavery,” PhD diss., 1942, Duke University Press (abstract).

73
cheerfully recommended to her store. ”
. . . Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 149.

73
kind among the colored people of this city. ”
. . . Ibid.

74
racial pride and keep money in Black communities.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 180–81.

74
and means, are all given to the white man. ”
. . . Ibid., 181.

74
in response to the lack of capital available to them.
... Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 151.

74
conducted by their own race, even at some disadvantage. ”
. . . Ibid., 183.

74
to promote African American–owned businesses.
... Ibid., 184.

74
the world is long in any degree ostracized.”
. . . Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 589.

74
called “the Golden Age of Black Business. ”
. . . Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 182.

75
the most powerful Black organizations in the world.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 76.

75
without inconvenience or inefficiency.”
. . . Ibid., 186.

75
Negro Business Leagues were functioning in thirty states.
... Ibid., 590.

75
“Buy Something From a Negro Merchant!”
. . . Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 17.

75
promoting National Negro Trade Weeks.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 526.

75
gets vision enough to use its strength. ”
. . . Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 57.

76
People's Cooperative supermarket at the Tuskegee Institute.
... Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 231–32.

76
hospitals and churches in the late nineteenth century. ”
. . . Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 451.

76
forty hospitals, all supported by African Americans.
... Ibid.

76
only nineteen hundred “Negro-owned” businesses;
. . . Ibid., 430.

76
white-collar jobs, many of which were in Black businesses.
... Ibid.

76
professionals as well as financing and insurance companies.
... Ibid., 82.

76
enterprise,” sociologist E. F. Frazier wrote in 1923.
. . . Ibid., 202.

77
a tradition of industry, reliability, and integrity. ”
. . . William Kenneth Boyd,
The Story of Durham, City of the New South
, 2d ed. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927), 278–79.

77
there were only two airports in the entire state.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 81–82.

77
A gunshot was fired, and a race riot ignited.
. . . 2001 report by the Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921,
http://www.okhistory.org/trrc/file1.pdf
, iv–v.

77
an Oklahoma state commission's 2001 report on the riot.
... Ibid.

77
Thousands of occupations were lost. ”
. . . Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 204.

78
aggregate retail sales drop was only 13 percent.
... Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 225–26.

78
leading them to patronize local, Black-owned businesses.
... Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 62.

78
that led to the demise of the family's business.
... Ibid., 63.

78
There is GREAT POWER in 15 BILLION DOLLARS!”
. . . Ibid., 54 (emphasis original).

79
movie theaters, workplaces, hotels, and other public services.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 262.

79
businesses that sold primarily to the Black community.
... “Operation Breadbasket,” Stanford University's Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Encyclopedia,
http://www.kinginstitute.info/
.

79
“negotiate a more equitable employment practice. ”
. . . Ibid.

79
$25 million a year going to Black neighborhoods.
... Ibid.

79
two thousand jobs, worth about $15 million.
... Ibid.

79
sustained black consumer economic retribution. ”
. . . Weems,
Desegregating the Dollar
, 69.

80
in the
Encyclopedia of African American Business History.... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 75.

80
enough to lift African Americans up economically.
. . . Ibid., 77.

80
nearly 13 percent of Americans who were Black.
... Ibid.

80
which has sometimes contradicted earlier rulings.
. . . “The Adarand Case: Affirmative Action and Equal Protection,” Constitutional Rights Foundation,
http://www.crf-usa.org/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=221&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=49
, 1–2.

81
traditionally the hardest hit in economic declines.
... Walker,
Encyclopedia of African American Business History
, 150.

81
who studies racial inequality and public policy.
... Ibid., 481.

81 in communities with large minority populations.” . . . Ibid., 480–81 (emphasis added).

81
communities, both of which can be very unstable.
... Ibid., 150.

82
white corporate America and demand employment. ”
. . . Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 273.

82
by gaining jobs and using their consumer muscle.
. . . Dr. Juliet Walker, interview with author, January 23, 2011.

82
specific goals to achieve black economic parity. ”
. . . Dr. Juliet Walker, interview with author, January 24, 2011.

83
“black capitalism” of the 1960s and '70s,
. . . Walker,
The History of Black Business in America
, 271.

83
positive outcomes for the Virtual Black Community. ”
. . . iZania,
http://www.izania.com/info/about/about-izania/
.

83
$100.5 billion in purchases from minority-owned businesses.
... NMSDC,
http://www.nmsdc.org/nmsdc/app/template/contentMgmt%2CContentPage.vm/contentid/1319;jsessionid=9FADD104329DE83648411E2BB9B491C2
.

84
a way to build a community that is self-sustaining.
. . . Harvest Institute,
http://www.harvestinstitute.org/
.

84
was estimated at about $913 billion in 2008,
. . . Addy et al., “The Empowerment Experiment,” 243.