8.
Hugh Kennedy,
Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus
(New York: Longman, 1996), 146.
9.
Kennedy, 154ff; Richard Fletcher,
Moorish Spain
, 105ff; Bernard Reilly, 90–128; Andrew Wheatcroft,
Infidel: A History of the Conflict Between Christendom and Islam
(New York: Random House, 2003), 85ff.
CHAPTER FOUR: THE CRUSADES
1.
Pope Urban II quoted in Thomas Asbridge,
The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict Between Christianity and Islam
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 32–33. Some scholars have questioned whether Jerusalem was indeed the stated goal of the First Crusade, but most have concluded that it was. For these historiographical debates, see Andrew Jotischky,
Crusading and the Crusader States
(New York: Longman, 2004), chap. 1.
2.
Al-Hakim’s eccentricities are described in Marshall Hodgson,
The Venture of Islam
, vol. 2, 26–28. Some have said that Hakim was the victim of later polemicists and that he was not at all addled.
3.
The literature on the origins of Christian holy war is immense. See Asbridge,
The First Crusades
, chap. 1; Christopher Tyerman,
Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Jotischky,
Crusading and the Crusader States;
Claude Cahen,
Orient et Occident au temps des Croisades
(Paris: Editions Aubier, 1983), 54–80.
4.
The first Urban quote is from the account written by Fulcher of Chartres, the second by Robert the Monk, both of which can be found in the Internet Medieval Sourcebook at
www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1k.html
.
5.
The story about a possible alliance between the Fatimids and the Crusaders comes from a thirteenth-century chronicler named Ibn al-Athir, quoted in Carole Hillenbrand,
The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives
(New York: Routledge, 2000), 46.
6.
Anna Comnena is the primary source on Alexius. Good secondary sources include John Julius Norwich,
Byzantium: The Decline and Fall (New
York: Knopf, 1995), 31–35; Ostrogorsky
History of the Byzantine State
, 349–70. Anna Comnena on Bohemond quoted in Elizabeth Hallam, ed.,
Chronicles of the Crusades: Eye-Witness Accounts of the Wars Between Christianity and Islam
(New York: Welcome Rain, 2000), 69–70.
7.
For the phrase “armed pilgrims,” see Georges Bordonove,
Les Croisades et le roy-aume de Jerusalem
(Paris: Editions Pygmalion, 2002).
8.
See the accounts of Ibn al-Athir, quoted in Francesco Gabrielli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 3–9; Ibn al-Qalanisi,
The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades
, ed. and trans. H. A. R. Gibb (New York: Dover Publications, 1932, 2002), 43–46. See also the magisterial history of Steven Runciman:
A History of the Crusades
, vol. 1,
The First Crusades and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), 213ff.
9.
The historian, Ibn al-Athir, is quoted at length in P. M. Holt,
The Crusader States and Their “Neighbors
(New York: Longman, 2004), 18.
10.
See Runciman, 279ff; Hallam,
Chronicles of the Crusades
, 88–94; Hans Eberhard Meyer,
The Crusades
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1965, 1988), 54–57; Asbridge,
The First Crusaders
, 316–19; Amin Maalouf,
The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
(New York: Schocken Books, 1983, 1987), 48–52.
11.
Ibn al-Athir quoted in Maalouf, 55.
12.
Piers Paul Read,
The Templars
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1999); Edith Clementine Bramhall, “The Origins of the Temporal Privileges of Crusaders,”
American Journal of Theology
(April 1901), 279–92.
13.
Quoted in Holt, 45.
14.
The first quotation, about Frankish religious toleration, is from Imad al-Din and is quoted in Benjamin Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of Frankish Levant,” in James M. Powell, ed.,
Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 161. The second, from Ibn Jubayr, is quoted in Kedar, 167. Ibn al-Qalanisi quoted in Hillenbrand, 396.
15.
See Ronnie Ellenblum,
Frankish Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
16.
Usama ibn Munqidh,
An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades
, trans. Philip Hitti (New York: Columbia University Press, 1929, 2000), 161–70.
CHAPTER FIVE: SALADIN’S JIHAD?
1.
Imad ad-Din quoted in Gabrielli,
Arab Historians of the Crusades
, 160ff; Saladin’s response to the delegation from Jerusalem and the speech of the
qadi
of Aleppo in Al-Aqsa Mosque both quoted in Stanley Lane-Poole,
Saladin: All Powerful Sultan and the Uniter of Islam
(New York: Cooper Square Press, 1898, 2002), 224–25, 236ff, which in turn translates from Ibn Khallikan. Also see Runciman,
A History of the Crusades
, vol. 2,
The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187.
2.
The account of Saladin’s character comes from Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad, quoted in Hallam, 155–56.
3.
Quoted in Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson,
Saladin: The Politics of Holy War
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 119–20.
4.
Gibbon quoted in Hillenbrand, 185. See also Edward Gibbon,
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
, vol. 3 (New York: Heritage Press, 1946), 2084–85.
5.
Both quotations in Lyons and Jackson, 194 and 228, as are statistics about time spent fighting Christians versus time spent campaigning against Muslims. Also, for a skeptical portrait of Saladin, see Andrew Ehrenkreutz,
Saladin
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1972).
6.
See David Cook,
Understanding Jihad
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Sayyid Hossein Nasr,
Islam: Religion, History and Civilization
(San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2003), 91ff
7.
Frankish account by Ernoul, written c. 1197, trans. Peter Edbury and Paul Hayams, in Fordham’s Medieval Sourcebook,
www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1187.ernoul.html
. See also the account of Ibn al-Athir in Gabrielli, 122–25.
8.
Runciman,
A History of the Crusades
, vol. 3,
The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades
, 53. For the Christian chronicler see
Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi
, ed. William Stubbs, Rolls Series (London: Longmans, 1864), IV, 2, 4 (pp. 240–41, 243), translated by James Brundage in
The Crusades: A Documentary History
(Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1962), 183–84.
9.
Runciman, vol. 3, 27.
10.
Most of this account of the marriage proposal is taken from Baha ad-Din, in Gabrielli, 225–31. Saladin’s reluctance to agree to truce is in Imad ad-Din, also in Gabrielli, 236–37.
11.
For an excellent recent account, see Jonathan Phillips,
The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople
(New York: Penguin Group, 2004).
CHAPTER SIX: THE PHILOSOPHER’S DREAM
1.
See for instance Mark Myerson,
A Jewish Renaissance in Fifteenth-Century Spain
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 2004), 12. Derogatory quotation about those who favored martyrdom from Jane Gerber,
The Jews of Spain
, 81. All Maimonides quotations from Isadore Twersky ed.,
A Maimonides Reader(Sp
ri
ng-
field, NJ.: Behrman House, 1972). On Maimonides and philosophy, see Joel Kraemer, “Maimonides and the Spanish Aristotelian School,” in Mark Myerson and Edward English, eds.,
Christians, Muslims, and Jews in Medieval and Early Modern Spain
(Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000). For al-Ghazali, see Fakhry
Islamic Philosophy
, 69–106, as well as Marshall Hodgson,
The Venture of Islam
, vol. 2, 180–92. For Ibn Arabi, see Seyyid Hossein Nasr,
Three Muslim Sages
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), chap. 3 (the Ibn Arabi quotation is on p. 116). Also on Ibn Arabi, al-Ghazali, and mysticism in general, see Annemarie Schimmel,
Mystical Dimensions of Islam
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), and John Renard,
Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality and the Religious Life
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
2.
Almohad “Doctrine of Divine Unity” in Olivia Remie Constable,
Medieval Iberia
, 190ff.
3.
Ibn Khaldun,
The Muqaddimah
, trans. Franz Rosenthal (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1967).
4.
Abu al-Baqa al-Rundi, “Lament for the Fall of Seville,” in Constable, 120–23.
5.
Charter issued by King Jaime of Aragon in Constable, 214–15.
6.
Mosen Diego de Valera quoted in Vivian Mann et al,
Convivencia
, 75.
7.
The description of Fernando’s tomb, as well as the relevant details about Alfonso’s life, are taken from Robert Burns, ed.,
Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990).
8.
See Menocal,
Ornament of the World
, 225–226; quotation of Alfonso’s nephew in Norman Roth, “Jewish Collaborators in Alfonso’s Scientific Work,” in Burns,
Emperor of Culture
, 59ff.
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE LORD OF TWO LANDS
1.
The story of Mehmed and the soldier in Hagia Sophia is told in countless narratives. This version is from Lord Kinross,
The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire
(New York: Morrow, 1977), 109. For the fall of the city see David Nicol,
The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), chap. 18; John Freely,
Istanbul: The Imperial City
(New York: Penguin Books, 1996), chap. 15. For the quotation “better the turban of the Muslim,” see David Talbot Rice,
The Byzantines
(New York: Praeger, 1962), 74. For a primary source on Mehmed, see the work of the fifteenth-century Ottoman chronicler Tursun Beg,
The History of Mehmed the Conqueror
, trans. Halil Inalcik and Rhoads Murphy (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1978). On the appointment of Gennadius, see for instance Daniel Goffman,
The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 171–73; the contemporary chronicler was Kritovoulus and is quoted in Benjamin Braude, “Foundation Myths of the Miller System,” in Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, eds.,
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society
, vol. 1 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982), 78; Kritovoulus,
History of Mehmed the Conqueror
, trans. Charles Riggs (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1954).