2.
That is exactly what
The Oxford English Dictionary
suggests the word meant in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. See Roger Crowley
1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West
(New York: Hyperion, 2005), 243.
3.
For good primers on the Ottomans, see Kinross,
The Ottoman Centuries;
Jason Goodwin,
Lords of the Horizon
(New York: 20004); Colin Imber,
The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (New
York: Palgrave, 2002). For skepticism on the so-called
ghazi
thesis, see Cemal Kafadar,
Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). On relations between the West and the Ottomans and the legacy of negative images, see Goffman,
The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe.
See also Bruce Masters,
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Secularism
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). The best survey on the Mediterranean world in this period and into the seventeenth century is Ferdinand Braudel,
The Mediterranean World.
4.
Joseph Hacker, “Ottoman Policy Toward the Jews and Jewish Attitudes Toward the Ottomans During the Fifteenth Century,” in Braude and Lewis, eds.,
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire
, 117–26; quotation about the Turks welcoming the Jews from Mark Mazower,
Salonica, City of Ghosts
(New York: Knopf, 2005), 48.
5.
Bartolomeo Contarini quoted in Alan Fisher, “The Life and Family of Suley-man I,” in Halil Inalcik and Cemal Kafadar, eds.,
Suleyman the Second and His Time
(Istanbul: Isis Press, 1993), 2. Also, Antony Bridge,
Suleiman the Magnificent
(New York: Dorset Press, 1966). Busbecq quoted in Kinross, 202. Luther quotations and Bodin quotations (which I have put in contemporary English) both from Goffman, 109–111. The primary Turkish source is Sinan Chavush,
Suley-manname
(Istanbul: Historical Research Foundation, 1987).
6.
For Suleyman and European Protestants, see Halil Inalcik,
The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300-1600
, trans. Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber (New York: Praeger, 1973), 30–38. Also, Stephen Fischer-Galati,
Ottoman Imperialism and German Protestantism
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); Eugene Rice and Anthony Grafton,
The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460-1559
(New York: Norton, 1994), 135–45.
CHAPTER EIGHT: THE TIDE BEGINS TO TURN
1.
On the
millet
system, see Bruce Masters,
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World
, 34ff. One of the best Turkish sources is Gulnihal Bozkurt,
Alman-Ingilizve siyasi gelismelerin isigi altinda gayriMuslim Osmanli vatandaslarinin hukukidurumu
(Ankara: Turk Tarik Kuruma Basimevi, 1989). Also, Carter Findley,
Ottoman Civil Officialdom
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1989); Mark Epstein, “The Leadership of the Ottoman Jews in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries,” and Joseph Hacker, “Ottoman Policy Toward the Jews and Jewish Attitudes Towards the Ottoman During the Fifteenth Century,” in Braude and Lewis, 100–126. Quotation of the patriarch of Jerusalem from Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, Introduction, in Braude and Lewis, 17. See also Caroline Finkel,
Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire
(London: John Murray, 2005).
2.
For Ottoman rule on Crete, see Molly Greene,
A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 2000).
3.
Quotation from a Catholic chronicler in 1667, cited in John Freely,
The Lost Messiah: In Search of the Mystical Rabbi Sabbatai Sevi
(New York: Overlook Press, 2001), 99. The magisterial work in the field remains Gershom Scholem,
Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1973).
4.
Lady Montagu quotation from Goffman, 169; the French general was Count Maurice de Saxe, quoted in Bernard Lewis, ed.,
A Middle East Mosaic
, 290–91.
5.
Sir William Eaton,
A Survey of the Ottoman Empire
(London, 1799), excerpted in the Internet Modern History Sourcebook at
www.fordham.edu/halsall
. On the capitulations, see Caglor Keydar, Y. Eyup Ozverum, and Donald Quataert, “Port-Cities in the Ottoman Empire,”
Fernand Braudel Center Review
16 (fall 1995), 519–58.
CHAPTER NINE: BRAVE NEW WORLDS
1.
Examples of trumpeting the period are Niall Ferguson,
Empire
(New York: Basic Books, 2004), and Paul Johnson,
The Birth of the Modern
(New York: HarperCollins, 1991). The negative stereotypes are too numerous to list, though one pure example might be the works of the English historian Eric Hobsbawm, or earlier in the century, J. A. Hobson,
Imperialism
(London: Allen & Unwin, 1948), originally published in 1902, which set the tone for much of what has been written subsequently.
2.
See M. S. Anderson,
The Eastern Question
(London: Macmillan, 1966).
3.
Napoleon quoted in J. M. Thompson,
Napoleon Bonaparte
(Oxford, England: Blackwell, 1952), 109. Al-Jabarti’s observations found in Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti,
Journal d’un notable du Cairo durant l’éxpedition française, 1798–1801
, trans. and annotated by Joseph Cuoq (Paris: Albin Michel, 1979), 90–95.
4.
On Tahtawi, see Albert Hourani,
Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 67–84. The quotation about national welfare and human progress comes from Tahtawi himself, in Hourani, 82. Also, Lisa Pollard, “The Habits and Customs of Modernity: Egyptians in Europe and the Geography of Nineteenth-Century Nationalism,”
Arab Studies Journal
(fall 1999), 51–60. On Muhammad Ali, see Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali
(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Henry Dodwell,
The Founder of Modern Egypt
(1931; repr, New York: AMS Press, 1977); P. J. Vatikiotis,
The History of Egypt
, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985); Khaled Fahmy “The Era of Muhammad Ali Pasha,” in
The Cambridge History of Egypt
, vol. 2, 139–180; Alain Silvera, “The First Egyptian Student Mission to France Under Muhammad Ali,”
Middle Eastern Studies
16 (May 1980), 1–19. I have also drawn on my own descriptions of Muhammad Ali in
Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal (New
York: Knopf, 2003).
5.
On the Ottoman reforms, see Roderic Davison,
Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876
(New York: Gordian Press, 1973). Quotation about the Ottoman state being like a “block of flats” found in Kemal Karpat, “Millets and Nationality,” in Braude and Lewis, eds., 141–69. See also Alan Palmer,
The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire
(New York: Barnes & Noble, 1992), 105–43; Stanford Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw,
History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
, vol. 2,
Reform, Revolution and Republic
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 55ff; Carter Findley
Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922
(Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1980); Bernard Lewis,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1961).
6.
A. L. Tibawi,
A Modern History of Syria
(London, 1969), 138–40; Kamal Salibi,
The Modern History of Lebanon
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1965), 139; Meir Zamir,
The Formation of Modern Lebanon
(Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1985), chap. 1; Samir Khalaf, “Communal Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Lebanon,” in Braude and Lewis, eds.,
Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire
, vol. 2,
The Arabic-Speaking Lands
(New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982), 107–33.
7.
For the failures of the
Tanzimat
, see Kemal Karpat, “Millets and Nationality,” in Braude and Lewis, vol. 1, 141–69; Fatme Muge Goçek, “Ethnic Segmentation, Western Education, and Political Outcomes: Nineteenth Century Ottoman Society,”
Politics Today
(1993); and Fatma Müge Göçek,
Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
CHAPTER TEN: THE AGE OF REFORM
1.
Abduh quotations come from Charles Adams,
Islam and Modernism in Egypt
(New York: Russell & Russell, 1933, 1968), 130, and from Malcolm Kerr,
Islamic Reformers
(Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 149. On Abduh, also see Hourani,
Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age
, 131–60. On Afghani, see Hourani as well; also, Nikki Keddi,
An Islamic Response to Imperialism: The Writings
and Teachings ofSayyid Jamal ad-Din Afghani
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983). On the legacy of the
salafiyya
, see Nazib Ayubi,
Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World (New
York: Routledge, 1991); also, Olivier Roy,
The Failure of Political Islam
, trans. Carol Volk (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994). For a look at how the ideas of Abduh and Afghani evolved in the twentieth century, see Jacob Landau,
The Politics of Pan-Islam
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
2.
Anne Blunt,
Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates
(London: Frank Cass, 1968; originally published in 1879). The quotation about the eternal truth of Islam is from Wilfrid Scawen Blunt,
The Future of Islam
(London, 1882), 142. Also, see Elizabeth Longford,
A Pilgrimage of Passion
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1979). On Egypt, see Jacques Berque,
Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution
, trans. Jean Stewart (New York: Praeger, 1972).
3.
The seminal, and controversial, work describing this group is Edward Said,
Orientalism
(New York: Random House, 1978). The book also contains extensive references to Renan.
4.
William Marmaduke Pickthall,
Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation
(New York: Knopf, 1930), and
Islam and Progress
(London: Muslim Book Society, 1920).
5.
For a general survey of economic trends, see Roger Owen,
The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914
(London: I. B. Tauris, 1981). Also, Charles Issawi,
An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1982).
6.
Elie Kedourie, “The American University in Beirut,”
Middle Eastern Studies
(October 1966), 74–90; “The American University of Beirut,”
Journal of World History
(fall 1967); Daniel Bliss,
The Reminiscence of Daniel Bliss (New
York: Rev-ell, 1920).
7.
See E. M. Forster,
Alexandria: A History and a Guide
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1922).