The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger (51 page)

18.
ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” pp. 6 and 58–60; Forgash, “Transport Revolution at the Last Frontier,” p. 63; Robert E. Bedingfield, “Personality: Champion of the Iron Horse,”
NYT
, February 22, 1959; “Trains and Trucks Take to the Ocean,”
Via
—
Port of New York, Special Issue: Transatlantic Transport Preview
(1965), p. 26; ICC,
Transport Statistics in the United States, Part 9: Private Car Lines
, Table 5, various years.

19.
ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” p. 28. Canada’s piggyback carloadings from 1959 through 1961 were about one-third those of the United States, despite a much smaller economy.
Containers
, no. 35 (June 1966): 33.

20.
Edward A. Morrow, “3-Way Piggyback Introduced Here,”
NYT
, August 10, 1960; Robert E. Bedingfield, “PiggyBack Vans Span Ocean Now,”
NYT
, March 12, 1961;
Containers
, no. 31 (June 1964): 25.

21.
Author’s interview with Bernard Czachowski, New York, January 24, 1992.

22.
PNYA,
Annual Reports
, various years; Hartman,
Collective Bargaining
, p. 270; McLean Industries,
Annual Report
, 1965.

23.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Marad, “United States Flag Containerships,” April 25, 1969.

24.
“Operators Uneasy on New Ships; Fear of Rapid Obsolescence Cited,”
NYT
, May 24, 1959. On 1964 discussions about entering the transatlantic trade, see Scott Morrison interview, COHP.

25.
Hall interview; George Home, “Intercoastal Trade,”
NYT
, January 29, 1961, “Line Will Renew U.S. Coastal Run,”
NYT
, February 23, 1961, and “U.S. Aid Is Denied for Coastal Runs,”
NYT
, May 13, 1961. Some of the details here are from Jerry Shields,
The Invisible Billionaire: Daniel Ludwig
(Boston, 1986), p. 224.

26.
Earl Hall interview, October 2, 1992; Sea-Land,
Annual Report
, 1965.

27.
Morrison interview, COHP.

28.
Ibid.; Werner Bamberger, “Rules on Cargo Boxes Revised to Spur Use and Ease Shipping,”
NYT
, March 17, 1966; Edward Cowan, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,”
NYT
, April 24, 1966.

29.
Cowan, “Container Service”; Edward A. Morrow, “New Stage Nears in Container Race,”
NYT
, March 28, 1966; A. D. Little, “Containerisation on the North Atlantic” (London, 1967), p. 14.

30.
On whiskey, see Morrison interview, COHP. The estimate of Sea-Land’s military cargo comes from memorandum, B. P. O’Connor, director of international freight sales, to J. R. Sullivan, Weehawken division superintendent, New York Central Railroad, April 27, 1966, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/8. On competitive bidding, see OAB/NHC, Post 1946 Command Files, MSTS, Box 889, Folder 1/1966; U.S. Department of Defense, news release No. 750–66, August 31, 1966; “US Is Firm on Its Plan for Bidding,”
JOC
, June 29, 1966.

31.
PNYA,
Annual Reports; “
The 1970 Outlook for Deep Sea Container Services,” p. 2; Edward Cowan, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,”
NYT
, April 24, 1966.

32.
Wallin, “The Development, Economics, and Impact,” p. 16; PNYA,
Container Shipping: Full Ahead; “
Countdown on for Container Ships,”
Via
—
Port of New York, Special Issue: Transatlantic Transport Preview
(1965), p. 8; Werner Bamberger, “A Danger Is Seen in Container Rise,”
NYT
, September 9, 1967; “Containerization Comes of Age,”
Distribution Manager
, October 1968.

33.
“Containers Widen Their World,”
Business Week
, January 7, 1967; Frank Broeze,
The Globalisation of the Oceans: Containerisation from the 1950s to the Present
(St. Johns, NF, 2002), p. 41.

34.
Statement of Lester K. Kloss, A. T. Kearney & Co., in U.S. House of Representatives, Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee,
Container Cargo Dimensions
, November 16, 1967, p. 183; “Containerization Comes of Age”; comment by U.S. Navy Capt. D. G. Bryce, “MSTS Area Commanders’ Conference,” March 4–7, 1969, OAB/NHC, Command Histories, Box 193, Folder 2/1989, p. 137.

35.
Press release, German Federal Railroad, July 26, 1967, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/6.

36.
Letter, J. R. Sullivan, New York Central, to H. W. Large, Vice President-Traffic, Pennsylvania Railroad, April 11, 1966, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/8.

37.
Aaron Cohen, “Report on Containerization in Export-Import Trade,” Traffic Executive Association-Eastern Railroads, April 20, 1966, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/9. Charges for empty containers are discussed in statement of James A. Hoyt, Grace Line, to Traffic Executive Association Eastern Railroads, January 30, 1967, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/10. On the Whirlpool proposal, see letter, Harold E. Bentsen, manager, international distribution, Whirlpool Corp., to B. P. O’Connor, director, international freight sales, New York Central Railroad, June 28, 1967 and letter, O’Connor to Bentsen, July 6, 1967, Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/8; on Matson, see memo, D. L. Werby to W. R. Brooks, New York Central, July 20, 1967, Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/10.

38.
Letter, John A. Daily to J. R. Sullivan, New York Central, February 6, 1967, in Penn Central Archives, 1810/B-1675/10.

39.
Kenneth Younger interview, December 16, 1991.

40.
“A Railroader on Containerization,”
Distribution Manager
, October 1968; ICC,
Transport Statistics.

1.
The formal decision to expand the war was communicated in National Security Action Memorandum No. 328, April 6, 1965.

2.
Command History 1964, Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV), Record Group (RG) 472, NACP; Edward J. Marolda and Oscar P. Fitzgerald,
The United States Navy and the Vietnam Conflict
, vol. 2,
From
Military Assistance to Combat, 1959–1965
(Washington, DC, 1986), pp. 357–358;
Sealift 1
5, no.6 (1965): 5.

3.
Memorandum for the Commander in Chief, Pacific. Terms of reference for Honolulu conference, April 8, 1965, Historians Background Material Files, 1965, MACV, RG 472, NACP. Information on backups is in MACV Fact Sheet, June 19, 1965, Mission Council Action Memorandums, Historians Background Material Files 1965, MACV, RG 472, NACP.

4.
Command History 1966, MACV, pp. 709–715, RG 472, NACP; “No Congestion at Saigon Port,” Vietnam Feature Service, Record 154933, VVA, Texas Tech University; Memorandum from W. S. Post Jr., Acting Commander, MSTS, to Secretary of Navy, Monthly Background Reports 1964–65, MSTS Command File, Box 895, OAB/NHC, Washington, DC; William D. Irvin, “Reminiscences of Rear Admiral William D. Irvin” (Annapolis, 1980), p. 634.

5.
On the push system, see interview with Lt. Col. Dolan, transportation officer, 1st Logistics Command, by Maj. John F. Hummer, March 30, 1966, in Classified Organizational History Files, 1966, 1st Logistics Command, U.S. Army Pacific, RG 550, NACP. Quotation is from Joseph M. Heiser, Jr.,
A Soldier Supporting Soldiers
(Washington, DC, 1991), p. 104.

6.
Edwin B. Hooper,
Mobility Support Endurance: A Story of Naval Operational Logistics in the Vietnam War, 1965–1968
(Washington, DC, 1972), p. 62; General Frank S. Besson Jr., speech to Council on World Affairs, Dallas, TX, May 7, 1968, in Oral History Program Former Commanders—Frank S. Besson, Jr., Historical Office, Headquarters, U.S. Army Materiel Command, 1986. James F. Warnock, Jr., “Recorded Recollections of Lt. Col. James F. Warnock Jr., Executive Officer, 29th Quartermaster Group, 1st Logistics Command, 9 April 1966,” Port Study, April 29, 1966, Classified Organizational History Files, 1st Logistics Command, Records of US Army Pacific, RG 550, NACP; Logistics Summary for the week ending July 30, 1965, General Records, Assistant Chief of Staff for Logistics, MACV, RG 472, NACP.

7.
Westmoreland and Killen memorandum to the ambassador, March 12, 1965, Historians Background Material Files, MACV, RG 472, NACP; Joint Chiefs of Staff, Historical Division,
The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam, 1960–1968, Part II
, pp. 21–23 and 21–28, Historical Division, Joint Secretariat, Joint Chiefs of Staff, Record 33179, VVA; Command History 1965, MACV, pp. 107–108 and 409.

8.
Quarterly Command Report, Second Quarter, FY 1966, Classified Organizational History Files, 1st Logistical Command, Records of U.S. Army Pacific, RG 550, NACP; “MACV Fact Sheet,” June 19, 1965; MACV, Historians Background Material Files, Minutes of Mission Council Meetings of June 28, 1965, July 6, 1965, and July 13, 1965, NACP 472/270/75/33/03, Box 20;
The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam, 1960–1968, Part II
, p. 21–25; telegram, Secretary of State Dean Rusk to Vietnam Coordinating Committee, August 8, 1965, in Mission Council Action Memorandums, 1965, Historians Background Material Files, MACV, RG 472, NACP; Talking Paper-End of Year Press Conference—Engineer Effort in Vietnam, December 21, 1965; Miscellaneous Memoranda, Historians Background Material Files 1965, MACV, RG 472, NACP.

9.
Briefing for Secretary McNamara, Ambassador Lodge, General Wheeler, November 28, 1965, Historians Background Material Files, MACV, RG 472, NACP. The Military Sea Transportation Service had declared Vietnam to be a “danger area” on May 11, which entitled seamen to double pay for each day there plus additional bonuses if their ship was attacked or if a harbor was attacked while their ship was in port; see memorandum, Glynn Donaho, Commander, MSTS, to Secretary of Navy, May 11, 1965, in Monthly Reports, MSTS Command File, 1964–65, OAB/NHC. Ship diversions to Philippines from author’s telephone interview with Milton Stickles, June 1, 2004. Quotation about second-class ports from MACV Command History 1965, p. 118; congressional visit in MACV, Historians Background Material Files, 1965, NACP 472/270/75/33/1–2, box 8.

10.
Sealift
, March 1966, p. 14; Command History, 1965, p. 121, MACV, RG 472, NACP; “AB&T Employees Perform Critical Tasks in Vietnam,”
Sealift
, August-September 1969, p. 6; Lawson P. Ramage, “Reminiscences of Vice Admiral Lawson P. Ramage” (Annapolis, 1970), p. 535.

11.
Command History 1965, p. 119, MACV, RG 472, NACP; Testimony of General Frank S. Besson Jr. to U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Military Operations Subcommittee, August 4, 1970, p. 53.

12.
On palletization and other changes, see Highlights, U.S. Naval Operations Vietnam, January 1966, OAB/NHC. Quotation is from author’s interview with Robert N. Campbell, June 25, 1993.

13.
Author’s interview with William Hubbard, August 10, 1993; and Ron Katims interview, COHP;
Baltimore Sun
, January 22, 1966.

14.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam, 1960–1968, Part II
, pp. 37–6 to 37–8; VVA, Record 33179; HQ MACV, Command History, 1965, NARA 472/270/75/32/6–7 Box 1, p. 231–2. Sea-Land had not been involved in the last major MSTS exercise before the Vietnam buildup, which was conducted entirely with breakbulk vessels; see
Sealift
, December 1964, p. 4, January 1965, p. 5, and March 1965, p. 13. A plan for container-ships to carry Conex containers is discussed in Alan F. Schoedel, “Viet Containership Plan Eyed,”
JOC
, January 26, 1966. The Okinawa contact is reported in Werner Bamberger, “Container Ships Sought for War,”
NYT
, May 26, 1966.

15.
On Equipment Rental Inc., see Katims interview, COHP, and Operational Report-Lessons Learned for quarter ended July 31, 1966, Command Histories, 1st Logistics Command, USARV, RG 472, NACP. On Okinawa and Vietnam contracts, see Besson speech to National Defense Transportation Association Annual Transportation and Logistics Forum, Washington, DC, October 14, 1968, Historical Office, Headquarters, U.S. Army Materiel Command; author’s telephone interview with Frank Hayden, former deputy head of contracts, MSTS, June 29, 2004; Department of Defense news release 458–66, May 25, 1966, Military Sea Transportation Service, Command History 1966, OAB/NHC, Washington, DC. “Ship Run Bid Refused,”
Baltimore Sun
, June 24, 1966.

16.
Operational Report-Lessons Learned for quarter ended July 31, 1966, 1st Logistical Command, p. 16. Port delays are reported in Briefing Data Prepared in Conjunction with Secretary of Defense McNamara’s Visit to RVN, October 1966, General Records, Assistant Chief of Staff for Logistics, MACV, RG 472, NACP. Data on man-hour requirements are from Besson presentation to Association of the United States Army, October 10, 1966, Historical Office, Headquarters, U.S. Army Materiel Command.

17.
Memorandum from Donaho on inspection trip to Asia, August 2–20, 1966, in Command Files, MSTS, OAB/NHC; Financial and Statistical Report, MSTS, various issues, OAB/NHC; Logistics Summary for 5–20 August, 1966, General Records, Assistant Chief of Staff for Logistics, MACV, RG 472, NACP; Operational Report-Lessons Learned for period ending January 31, 1967, 1st Logistics Command, RG 472, NACP Logistics Summary, 15 December 1966, 1st Logistical Command, RG 472, NACP;
Pacific Stars & Stripes
, October 14, 1966.

18.
Ramage, “Reminiscences,” p. 532; Werner Bamberger, “Navy Augments Shipping for War,”
NYT
, March 30, 1967;
Sealift
, May 1967, pp. 9–10.

19.
Katims interview, COHP; Campbell interview; Logistical Summaries, June and September 1967, USRVN, RG 472, NACP;
Sealift
, October 1967, p. 20; “New Supply Concept Comes to Vietnam,”
1st Logistical Command Vietnam Review
1, no. 1 (1967).

20.
Command History 1967, p. 772, MACV, RG 472, NACP; Vice Admiral Lawson P. Ramage, Remarks to Propeller Club of the United States, St. Louis, October 11, 1968, Command History, MSTS, OAB/NHC. On the feeder ships, see John Boylston, interview with Arthur Donovan and Andrew Gibson, December 7, 1998, COHP, Box 639.