The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (19 page)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, fatigue, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially eau-de-cologne and oriental bases. Used as a flavour ingredient in many food products, mainly sauces and seasonings; also in alcoholic drinks, especially liqueurs such as chartreuse.

Pilocarpus jaborandi

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS
Pernambuco jaborandi, P. pennatifolius
, iaborandi, jamborandi, arrudo do mato, arruda brava, jamguaraddi, juarandi.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A woody shrub up to 2 metres high with a smooth, greyish bark, large brownish-green leathery leaves containing big oil glands and reddish-purple flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Brazil; other species are found in Paraguay, Cuba, the West Indies and Central America.

OTHER SPECIES There are many members of the
Rutaceae
and
Piperaceae
family known simply as jaborandi, such as
Piper jaborandi.
Others include maranham jaborandi
(P. microphyllus)
, ceara jaborandi
(P. trachylophus)
and aracti jaborandi
(P. spicatus).
There is consequently some confusion about the exact botanical source of the oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Jaborandi induces salivation and most gland secretions; it was also used at one time to promote hair growth. ‘Useful in psoriasis, prurigo, deafness … chronic catarrh, tonsillitis and particularly dropsy.’
⁴⁶

ACTIONS Antiseptic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, stimulant (nerve).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaflets.

CHARACTERISTICS An orange or yellow liquid with a sweet-herbaceous fruity odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pilocarpine is the main active constituent; also isopilocarpine, pilocarpidine, methyl nonyl ketone, dipentene and other hydrocarbons.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin, skin irritant, abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Various hypodermic solutions are prepared from pilocarpine: the crude oil is rarely used. Little used in perfumery or flavour work due to toxicity.

Jasminum officinale

FAMILY Oleaceae

SYNONYMS Jasmin, jessamine, common jasmine, poet’s jessamine.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub or vine up to 10 metres high with delicate, bright green leaves and star-shaped very fragrant white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to China, northern India and west Asia; cultivated in the Mediterranean region, China and India (depending on the exact species). The concrete is produced in Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan, Algeria and Turkey; the absolute is mainly produced in France.

OTHER SPECIES There are many species of jasmine used for medicine and perfumery work. Apart from the common jasmine, the most widespead varieties are the royal or Italian jasmine
(J. grandiflorum)
which is grown in the Mediterranean region, and its Eastern counterpart
J. officinale var. grandiflorum
or
J
.
auriculatum.
See the Botanical Classification section for a more comprehensive list.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In China the flowers of
J
.
officinale var. grandiflorum
are used to treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and dysentery; the flowers of
J
.
sambac
are used for conjunctivitis, dysentery, skin ulcers and tumours. The root is used to treat headaches, insomnia, pain due to dislocated joints and rheumatism.

In the West, the common jasmine was said to ‘warm the womb … and facilitate the birth; it is useful for cough, difficulty of breathing, etc. It disperses crude humours, and is good for cold and catarrhous constitutions, but not for the hot.’ It was also used for hard, contracted limbs and problems with the nervous and reproductive systems.

ACTIONS Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic (uterine).

EXTRACTION A concrete is produced by solvent extraction; the absolute is obtained from the concrete by separation with alcohol. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the absolute.

CHARACTERISTICS The absolute is a dark orange-brown, viscous liquid with an intensely rich, warm, floral scent and a tealike undertone. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, clary sage, and all citrus oils. It has the ability to round off any rough notes and blend with virtually everything.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS There are over 100 constituents in the oil including benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis-jasmone, methyl jasmonate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing. (An allergic reaction has been known to occur in some individuals.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Dry, greasy, irritated, sensitive skin.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Muscular spasm, sprains.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, labour pains, uterine disorders.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Depression, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions. ‘It … produces a feeling of optimism, confidence and euphoria. It is most useful in cases where there is apathy, indifference or listlessness.’
⁴⁷

OTHER USES Extensively used in soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially high class floral and oriental fragrances. The oil and absolute are employed in a wide range of food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The dried flowers of
J. sambac
are used in jasmine tea.

Juniperus communis

FAMILY Cupressaceae

SYNONYM Common juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish-green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.

OTHER SPECIES In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of
J. smerka
, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as
J
.
oxycedrus
which produces cade oil,
J
.
virginiana
which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and
J. sabina
which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and
worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.

ACTIONS Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper-brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infections.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.

Cistus ladaniferus

FAMILY Cistaceae

SYNONYMS Cistus (oil), gum cistus, ciste, cyste (absolute), labdanum gum, ambreine, European rock rose.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small sticky shrub up to 3 metres high with lance-shaped leaves which are white and furry on the underside, and fragrant white flowers. Labdanum gum, a dark brown solid mass, is a natural oleoresin which is obtained by boiling the plant material in water.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean mountainous regions and the Middle East. Now
found throughout the Mediterranean region, especially southern France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Morocco, Cyprus and Yugoslavia. The oil is mainly produced in Spain.

OTHER SPECIES Labdanum gum is also obtained from other
Cistus
species, notably C.
incanus
, and other subspecies: see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION One of the early aromatic substances of the ancient world. The gum was used formerly for catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery and to promote menstruation; externally it was used in plasters. The oil from the closely related plant frostwort
(Helianthemum canadense)
, also known as cistus, also has many medicinal qualities and is said to be useful for scrofulous skin conditions, ulcers and tumours, including cancer.

ACTIONS Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, balsamic, emmenagogue, expectorant, tonic.

EXTRACTION 1. A resinoid or resin concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the crude gum. 2. An essential oil by steam distillation from the crude gum, the absolute, or from the leaves and twigs of the plant directly.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Absolute – a semi-solid green or amber mass with a rich, sweet, herbaceous-balsamic odour. 2. Oil – a dark yellow or amber viscous liquid with a warm, sweet, dry-herbaceous musky scent. It blends well with oakmoss, clary sage, pine, juniper, calamus, opopanax, lavender, lavandin, bergamot, cypress, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, olibanum, chamomile maroc and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS It contains over 170 pinenes, including camphene, sabinene, myrcene, phellandrene, limonene, cymene, cineol, borneol, nerol, geraniol, fenchone, etc. Exact constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Mature skin, wrinkles.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Coughs, bronchitis, rhinitis, etc.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

OTHER USES Used as a fixative and fragrance component in lotions, powders, soaps, detergents, colognes and perfumes, especially oriental perfumes and aftershaves. Employed in most major food categories, particularly meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

Lavandula x intermedia

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS
Lavandula hybrida, L. hortensis
, bastard lavender.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A hybrid plant developed by crossing true lavender
(L. angustifolia)
with spike lavender or aspic
(L. latifolia).
Due to its hybrid nature, lavandin has a variety of forms: in general, it is a larger plant than true lavender, with woody stems. Its flowers may be blue like true lavender, or greyish like aspic.

DISTRIBUTION A natural lavandin occurs in the mountainous regions of southern France where both parent plants grow wild, though at different altitudes. Still mainly cultivated in France, but also Spain, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Argentina.

OTHER SPECIES There are cultivars of lavender, such as ‘Dwarf Blue’, ‘Hidcote Pink’ and ‘Bowles Early’; there are also many cultivars of lavandin such as ‘Grey Hedge’, ‘Silver Grey’ and ‘Alba’. For further information see entries on true lavender and spike lavender; also the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Sixty years ago, when
A Modern Herbal
was written by Mrs
Grieve, lavandin was still unknown, so it does not have a long history of therapeutic use. Its properties seem to combine those of the true lavender and aspic.

ACTIONS See
true lavender.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops; it has a higher yield of oil than either true lavender or aspic. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a fresh camphoraceous topnote (which should not be too strong in a good quality oil), and a woody herbaceous undertone. It blends well with clove, bay leaf, cinnamon, citronella, cypress, pine, clary sage, geranium, thyme, patchouli, rosemary and citrus oils, especially bergamot and lime.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Linalyl acetate (30–32 per cent), linalol, cineol, camphene, pinene and other trace constituents.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Similar uses to true lavender, but it is more penetrating and rubefacient with a sharper scent – good for respiratory, circulatory or muscular conditions.

OTHER USES Extensively employed in soaps, detergents, room sprays, hair preparations and industrial perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, and also as a natural source of linalol and linalyl acetate.

Lavandula latifolia

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS L.
spica
, aspic, broad-leaved lavender, lesser lavender, spike.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An aromatic evergreen sub-shrub up to 1 metre high with lance-shaped leaves, broader and rougher than true lavender. The flower is more compressed and of a dull grey-blue colour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the mountainous regions of France and Spain, also found in North Africa, Italy, Yugoslavia and the eastern Mediterranean countries. It is cultivated internationally; the oil is mainly produced in France and Spain.

OTHER SPECIES There are many different chemotypes of lavender in general, and this also applies to spike lavender. The French spike oil is reputed to be a more delicate, aromatic scent than the Spanish variety. For other varieties, see entries on lavandin, true lavender and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Culpeper recommends spike lavender for a variety of ailments including ‘pains of the head and brain which proceed from cold, apoplexy, falling sickness, the dropsy, or sluggish malady, cramps, convulsions, palsies, and often faintings.’ He also warns that ‘the oil of spike is of a fierce and piercing quality, and ought to be carefully used, a very few drops being sufficient for inward or outward maladies.’
⁴⁸
The preparation ‘oleum spicae’ was made by mixing ¼ spike oil with ¾ turpentine, and used for paralysed limbs, old sprains and stiff joints (it was also said to encourage hair growth).

Spike lavender is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, indicated for flatulent dyspepsia, colic, depressive headaches, and the oil (topically) for rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS See
true lavender.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a penetrating, fresh-herbaceous, camphoraceous odour. It blends well with rosemary, sage, lavandin, eucalyptus, rosewood, lavender, petitgrain, pine, cedarwood, oakmoss, patchouli and spice oils, particularly clove.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly cineol and camphor (40–60 per cent), with linalol and linalyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant(except in concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE See
true lavender.

OTHER USES It is used in some pharmaceutical preparations and especially in veterinary practice as a prophylactic, in incipient paralysis, for rheumatism and arthritis and to get rid of lice. It is extensively employed as a fragrance component especially in soaps and industrial perfumes such as deodorants, disinfectants and cleaning agents, as well as insecticides and room sprays, etc. It is also used in the food industry and in the production of fine varnishes and lacquers.

Lavandula angustifolia

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS
L. vera, L. officinalis
, garden lavender, common lavender

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of
lavender;
L. angustifolia
is divided into two subspecies –
L. delphinensis
and
L
.
fragrans.
French lavender
(L. stoechas)
is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender
(Santolina chamaecyparissus)
and the sea lavender
(Statice caroliniana)
belong to different botanical families.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic … A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’
⁴⁹

ACTIONS Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral-herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
SKIN CARE
: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.

GENITO
-
URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: ’flu.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

Citrus limon

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS
C. limonum
, cedro oil.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with serrated oval leaves, stiff thorns and very fragrant flowers. The fruit turns from green to yellow on ripening.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Asia, probably east India; it now grows wild in the Mediterranean region especially in Spain and Portugal. It is cultivated extensively worldwide in Italy, Sicily, Cyprus, Guinea, Israel, South and North America (California and Florida).