The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (23 page)

In the East the white fluffy underside of the leaves is used for moxibustion, a process often combined with acupuncture, in which the compressed dried herb is burned over a certain point in the body to stimulate it with heat. Moxa was also used in Europe to relieve gout and rheumatism.

It is current in the British Herbal
Pharmacopoeia as a specific for amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, carminative, choleretic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, orexigenic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic (uterine, womb), vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a powerful camphoraceous, bitter-sweet, herbaceous odour. It blends well with oakmoss, patchouli, rosemary, lavandin, pine, sage, clary sage and cedarwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thujone, cineol, pinenes and dihydromatricaria ester, among others.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin, due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘It should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’
⁵⁸

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component in soaps, colognes and perfumes. Limited use in flavouring due to toxic levels of thujone.

Brassica nigra

FAMILY Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

SYNONYMS
Sinapsis nigra, B. sinapioides
, black mustard.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect annual up to 3 metres high, with spear-shaped upper leaves, smooth flat pods containing about ten dark brown seeds, and bright yellow cabbagelike flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Common throughout south eastern Europe, southern Siberia, Asia Minor and North Africa; naturalized in North and South America. Cultivated for its seed and oil in England, Holland, Denmark, Germany and Italy.

OTHER SPECIES The Russian variety is known as brown mustard or ‘sarepta’
(B. juncea);
the white mustard
(B. alba)
does not contain any essential oil. Also closely related is rape
(B. napus)
and other local species which are used in India and China.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The seeds are highly esteemed as a condiment and for their medicinal qualities. They have been used in the East and West to aid the digestion, warm the stomach and promote the appetite, and for cold, stiff or feverish conditions such as colds, chills, coughs, chilblains, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago and general aches and pains.

ACTIONS Aperitif, antimicrobial, antiseptic, diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, rubefacient (produces blistering of the skin), stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the black mustard seeds, which have been macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, penetrating, acrid odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Allyl isothiocyanate (99 per cent). NB: Black mustard seed or powder does not contain this constituent, which is only formed by contact with water during the production of the essential oil.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin, dermal toxin, mucous membrane irritant. It is considered one of the most toxic of all essential oils.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
None.
”It should not be used in therapy either externally or internally.’
⁵⁹

OTHER USES Used in certain rubefacient or counter-irritant liniments. Used extensively by
the food industry especially in pickles, seasonings and sauces. Little used as a fragrance component except in cat and dog repellents.

Commiphora myrrha

FAMILY Burseraceae

SYNONYMS
Balsamodendrom myrrha
, gum myrrh, common myrrh, hirabol myrrh, myrrha.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The
Commiphora
species which yield myrrh are shrubs or small trees up to 10 metres high. They have sturdy knotted branches, trifoliate aromatic leaves and small white flowers. The trunk exudes a natural oleoresin, a pale yellow liquid which hardens into reddish-brown tears, known as myrrh. The native collectors make incisions in the bark of the tree to increase the yield.

DISTRIBUTION The
Commiphora
species are native to north east Africa and south west Asia, especially the Red Sea region (Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia).

OTHER SPECIES There are several C. species which yield myrrh oleoresin: African or Somali myrrh
(C. molmol)
and Arabian or Yemen myrrh
(C. abyssinica).
Bisabol myrrh or opopanax
(C. erthraea)
also belongs to the same family.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Myrrh has been employed since the earliest times in Eastern and Western medicine; its use is mentioned some 3700 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it for embalming purposes and in their perfumes and cosmetics. In China it is used for arthritis, menstrual problems, sores and haemorrhoids. In the West it is considered to have an ‘opening, heating, drying nature’ (Joseph Miller), good for asthma, coughs, common cold, catarrh, sore throat, weak gums and teeth, ulcers and sores. It has also been used to treat leprosy.

Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for mouth ulcers, gingivitis and pharyngitis.

ACTIONS Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, revitalizing, sedative, stimulant (digestive, pulmonary), stomachic, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION 1. Resinoid (and resin absolute) by solvent extraction of the crude myrrh. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the crude myrrh.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The resinoid is a dark reddish-brown viscous mass, with a warm, rich, spicy-balsamic odour. It is not pourable at room temperature so a solvent, such as diethyl phthalate, is sometimes added. 2. The essential oil is a pale yellow to amber oily liquid with a warm, sweet-balsamic, slightly spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, benzoin, oakmoss, cypress, juniper, mandarin, geranium, patchouli, thyme, mints, lavender, pine and spices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The crude contains resins, gum and about 8 per cent essential oil composed mainly of heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, cadinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, possibly toxic in high concentration. Not to be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Athlete’s foot, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, mature complexions, ringworm, wounds, wrinkles.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, gum infections, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, voice loss.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, loss of appetite.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea,
leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

OTHER USES The oil, resinoid and tincture are used in pharmaceutical products, including mouthwashes, gargles and toothpaste; also used in dentistry. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types and heavy florals. Used as flavour ingredients in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Myrtus communis

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYM Corsican pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large bush or small tree with many tough but slender branches, a brownish-red bark and small sharp-pointed leaves. It has white flowers followed by small black berries; both leaves and flowers are very fragrant.

DISTRIBUTION Native to North Africa, it now grows freely all over the Mediterranean region; it is also cultivated as a garden shrub throughout Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Corsica, Spain, Tunisia, Morocco, Italy, Yugoslavia and France.

OTHER SPECIES Part of the same large aromatic family which includes eucalyptus and tea tree; also bayberry or wax myrtle
(Myrica cerifera)
and the Dutch myrtle or English bog myrtle
(Myrica gale)
which are used in herbal medicine (though their essential oils are said to be poisonous). Not to be confused with iris, sometimes called ‘myrtle flower’ or calamus, which is also known as ‘myrtle grass’ or ‘sweet myrtle’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves and berries have been used for ‘drying and binding, good for diarrhoea and dysentery, spitting of blood and catarrhous defluctions upon the breast’.
⁶⁰
Dioscorides prescribed it for lung and bladder infections in the form of an extract made by macerating the leaves in wine. The leaves and flowers were a major ingredient of ‘angel’s water’, a sixteenth-century skin care lotion.

ACTIONS Anticatarrhal, antiseptic (urinary, pulmonary), astringent, balsamic, bactericidal, expectorant, regulator, slightly sedative.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs (sometimes the flowers).

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or orange liquid with a clear, fresh, camphoraceous, sweet-herbaceous scent somewhat similar to eucalyptus. It blends well with bergamot, lavandin, lavender, rosemary, clary sage, hyssop, bay leaf, lime, laurel, ginger, clove and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol, myrtenol, pinene, geraniol, linalol, camphene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, haemorrhoids, oily skin, open pores.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, chronic coughs, tuberculosis – ‘Because of its relative mildness, this is a very suitable oil to use for children’s coughs and chest complaints.’
⁶¹

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infectious disease.

OTHER USES Used mainly in eau-de-cologne and toilet waters. Employed as a flavouring ingredient in meat sauces and seasonings, generally in combination with other herbs.

Narcissus poeticus

FAMILY Amaryllidaceae

SYNONYMS Pinkster lily, pheasant’s eye, poet’s narcissus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A familiar garden flower up to 50 cms high, with long sword-shaped leaves with very fragrant white flowers having a short yellow trumpet and crisped red edge.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Middle East or the eastern Mediterranean region; naturalized in southern France. It is cultivated extensively for its flowers. Only Holland and the Grasse region of France produce the concrete and absolute.

OTHER SPECIES There are two main types produced in France: the cultivated or
des plaines
variety and the wild or
des montagnes
type. Narcissus is also closely related to the jonquil
(N. jonquilla)
and campernella
(N. odorus)
, which are also occasionally used to produce an absolute, as well as to the daffodil
(N. pseudo-narcissus).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name derives from the Greek
narkao
– to be numb – due to its narcotic properties. The Roman perfumers used ‘narcissum’, a solid unguent made from narcissus flowers, in the preparation of their elaborate fragrances. In France the flowers were used at one time for their antispasmodic properties, said to be useful in hysteria and epilepsy.

In India the oil is applied to the body before prayer in temples, along with rose, sandalwood and jasmine. The Arabians recommend the oil as a cure for baldness, and as an aphrodisiac.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, emetic, narcotic, sedative.

EXTRACTION A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS The absolute is a dark orange, olive or green viscous liquid with a sweet, green-herbaceous odour and heavy floral undertone. It blends well with clove bud, jasmine, neroli, ylang ylang, rose, mimosa, sandalwood, oriental and floral fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Quercetin, possibly narcissine (the alkaloid that causes nausea).

SAFETY DATA All members of the Amaryllidaceae family, especially the bulbs, have a profound effect on the nervous system, causing paralysis and even in some cases death. ‘The bulbs of N.
poeticus
are more dangerous than those of the daffodil, being powerfully emetic and irritant. The scent of the flowers is deleterious, if they are present in any quantity in a closed room, producing in some persons headache and even vomiting.’
⁶²

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume.

OTHER USES The absolute and concrete are used almost exclusively in high class perfumes of the narcotic/ floral type.

Melaleuca viridiflora

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS
M. quinquenervia
, ‘gomenol’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree with a flexible trunk and spongy bark, pointed linear leaves and bearing spikes of sessile yellowish flowers. The leaves have a strong aromatic scent when they are crushed.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Australia, New Caledonia, and the French Pacific Islands. The majority of the oil is produced in Australia and Tasmania.

OTHER SPECIES A typical member of the ‘tea tree’ group of oils; the oil is similar to cajeput. There is another physiological form of
M. viridiflora
called ‘Variety A’, which was originally developed to provide a natural source of nerolidol, the main constituent of its essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It is used locally for a wide variety of ailments, such as aches and pains, respiratory conditions, cuts and infections; it is also used to purify the water. The name ‘gomenol’ derives from the fact that it used to be shipped from Gomen in the French East Indies.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anthelmintic, anticatarrhal, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, regulator, stimulant, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and young twigs. (Usually rectified to remove irritant aldehydes.)

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless, pale yellow or greenish liquid with a sweet, fresh, camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol (50–65per cent), terpineol, pinene, limonene, citrene, terebenthene, valeric ester, acetic ester, butyric ester.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Often subject to adulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE:
Acne, boils, burns, cuts, insect bites, oily skin, spots, ulcers, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat, whooping cough.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, urinary infection.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, fever, ’flu.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceutical preparations such as gargles, cough drops, toothpastes, mouth sprays, etc.

Myristica fragrans

FAMILY Myristicaceae

SYNONYMS
M. officinalis, M. aromata, Nux moschata
, myristica (oil), mace (husk), macis (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with a greyish-brown smooth bark, dense foliage and small dull-yellow flowers. ‘Mace’ is the name given to the bright red netlike aril or husk surrounding the nutmeg shell and seed, which is contained within the fleshy fruit.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Moluccas and nearby islands; cultivated in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and the West Indies, especially Grenada.

The oil is also distilled in the USA and Europe from the imported nutmegs.

OTHER SPECIES Indonesia and Sri Lanka produce the so-called ‘East Indian’ nutmeg which is considered superior, while Grenada produces the ‘West Indian’ nutmeg – see also Botanical Classification.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Nutmeg and mace are widely used as domestic spices in the East and West. They have been used for centuries as a remedy mainly for digestive and kidney problems. In Malaysia they are used during pregnancy to strengthen and tone the uterine muscles. Grated nutmeg with lard is used for piles. A fixed oil of nutmeg is also used in soap and candle making.

Nutmeg is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia indicated for flatulent dyspepsia, nausea, diarrhoea, dysentery, and topically for rheumatism.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-emetic, anti-oxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, gastric secretory stimulant, larvicidal, orexigenic, prostaglandin inhibitor, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from 1. the dried worm-eaten nutmeg seed (the worms eat away all the starch and fat content); 2. the dried orange-brown aril or husk – mace; and 3. an oleoresin is also produced in small quantities by solvent extraction from mace.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy odour and a terpeney top-note. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy scent. 3. An orange-brown viscous liquid with a fresh, spicy-warm, balsamic fragrance. It has good masking power.

They blend well with oakmoss, lavandin, bay leaf, Peru balsam, orange, geranium, clary sage, rosemary, lime, petitgrain, mandarin, coriander and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons (88 per cent approx.): camphene, pinene, dipentene, sabinene, cymene, with lesser amounts of geraniol, borneol, linalol, terpineol, myristicin (4–8 per cent), safrol and elemincin, among others. Mace oil contains similar constituents but contains more myristicin.

SAFETY DATA Both nutmeg and mace are generally non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing. However, used in large doses they show signs of toxicity such as nausea, stupor and tachycardia, believed to be due to the myristicin content. ‘Large quantities are hallucinogenic and excitant to the motor cortex.’
⁶³
On this basis nutmeg (especially the West Indian type) is probably safer to use than mace. Use in moderation, and with care in pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Flatulence, indigestion, nausea, sluggish digestion.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Bacterial infection.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Frigidity, impotence, neuralgia, nervous fatigue.

OTHER USES Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals, especially analgesic and tonic preparations. Nutmeg and mace oil are used in soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Mace oleoresin is used in colognes and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. Both oils and oleoresin are used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.