The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (32 page)

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Known to Galen and Hippocrates for its many applications, especially with regard to pulmonary and genito-urinary infections, digestive complaints and externally as a treatment for rheumatic or neuralgic pain and skin conditions. In China the oleoresin has been used (both internally and externally) for centuries for excess phlegm, bronchitis, rheumatism, stiff joints, toothache, boils, sores, ringworm and dermatitis.

The turpentine essence or spirit of turpentine is said to be four times more active than the crude turpentine.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, diuretic, cicatrisant, counter-irritant, expectorant, haemostatic, parasiticide, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleoresin, then rectified. ‘It has to be purified because it is viscous, coloured and acidic.’
¹⁰⁶

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless, water-white mobile liquid with a fresh, warm-balsamic, familiar odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly alphapinene (approx. 50 per cent), betapinene (25–35 per cent) and carene (20–60 per cent) in the American oils. In European oils the alphapinene can constitute up to 95 per cent – constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA Environmental hazard – marine pollutant. Relatively non-toxic and non-irritant; possible sensitization in some individuals. Avoid therapeutic use or employ in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Use with care for:
SKIN CARE
: Boils, cuts, fleas, insect repellent, lice, ringworm, scabies, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sciatica.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, catarrh, whooping cough.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Neuralgia.

OTHER USES Used in many ointments and lotions for aches and pains; and in cough and cold remedies. Neither oil nor oleoresin is used in perfumery work, although resin derivatives are used as fixative agents and in pine and industrial perfumes. Mainly known as a paint and stain remover, solvent and insecticide. Also used as a starting material for the production of terpineol, etc.

Valeriana fauriei

FAMILY Valerianaceae

SYNONYMS V.
officinalis, V. officinalis var. angustifolium
, V.
officinalis var. latifolia
, European valerian, common valerian, Belgian valerian, fragrant valerian, garden valerian.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high with a hollow, erect stem, deeply dissected dark leaves and many purplish-white flowers. It has short, thick, greyish roots, largely showing above ground, which have a strong odour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and parts of Asia; naturalized in North America. It is mainly cultivated in Belgium for its oil, also in France, Holland, England, Scandinavia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, China and the USSR.

OTHER SPECIES There are over 150 species of valerian found in different parts of the world. The Eastern varieties are slightly different from the Western types: the oil from the Japanese plant called ‘kesso root’(V.
officinalis)
is more woody; the oil from the Indian valerian
(V. wallichii)
is more musky. Also closely related to spikenard
(Nardostachys jatamansi)
– see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb has been highly esteemed since medieval times, and used to be called ‘all heal’. It has been used in the West for a variety of complaints, especially where there is nervous tension or restlessness, such as insomnia, migraine, dysmenorrhoea, intestinal colic, rheumatism, and as a pain reliever.

On the Continent the oil has been used for cholera, epilepsy and for skin complaints. In China it is used for backache, colds, menstrual problems, bruises and sores.

The root is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘conditions presenting nervous excitability’.
¹⁰⁷

ACTIONS Anodyne (mild), antidandruff, diuretic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, depressant of the central nervous system, hypnotic, hypotensive, regulator, sedative, stomachic.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes. 2. An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction of the rhizomes.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. An olive to brown liquid (darkening with age) with a warm-woody, balsamic, musky odour; a green topnote in fresh oils. 2. An olive-brown viscous liquid with a balsamic-green, woody, bitter-sweet strong odour. It blends well with patchouli, costus, oakmoss, pine, lavender, cedarwood, mandarin, petitgrain and rosemary.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly bornyl acetate and isovalerate, with caryophyllene, pinenes, valeranone, ionone, eugenyl isovalerate, borneol, patchouli alcohol and valerianol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE NERVOUS SYSTEM: Insomnia, nervous indigestion, migraine, restlessness and tension states.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceutical preparations as a relaxant and in herbal teas. The oil and absolute are used as fragrance components in soaps and in ‘moss’ and ‘forest’ fragrances. Used to flavour tobacco, root beer, liqueurs and apple flavourings.

Vanilla planifolia

FAMILY Orchidaceae

SYNONYMS
V. fragrans
, common vanilla, Mexican vanilla, Bourbon vanilla, Reunion vanilla.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial herbaceous climbing vine up to 25 metres high, with green stems and large white flowers which have a deep narrow trumpet. The green capsules or fruits are ready to pick after eight or nine months on the plant, and then have to be ‘cured’. The immature vanilla ‘pod’ or ‘bean’ which is from 14 cms to 22 cms long, has to be fermented and dried to turn it into the fragrant brown vanilla pods of commerce – a process which can take up to six months to complete. During the drying process vanillin can accumulate as white crystals on the surface of the bean.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Central America and Mexico; cultivated mainly in Madagascar and Mexico; also Tahiti, the Comoro Islands, East Africa and Indonesia, although the pods are often processed in Europe or the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are several different species of vanilla, such as the Tahiti vanilla
(V. tahitensis)
which is a smaller bean, and the ‘vanillons’ type
(V. pompona)
which produces an inferior quality oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION When vanilla is grown in cultivation the deep trumpet-shaped flowers have to be hand-pollinated; except in Mexico where the native humming birds do most of the work!

ACTIONS Balsamic.

EXTRACTION A resinoid (often called an oleoresin) by solvent extraction from the ‘cured’ vanilla beans. (An absolute is occasionally produced by further extraction from the resinoid.)

CHARACTERISTICS A viscous dark brown liquid with a rich, sweet, balsamic, vanilla-like odour. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, opopanax, benzoin, balsams and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Vanillin (1.3–2.9 per cent) with over 150 other constituents, many of them traces: hydroxybenzaldehyde, acetic acid, isobutyric acid, caproic acid, eugenol and furfural, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, common sensitizing agent. Widely adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceutical products as a flavouring agent. Used as a fragrance ingredient in perfumes, especially oriental types. Widely used to flavour tobacco and as a food flavouring, mainly in ice cream, yoghurt and chocolate.

Aloysia triphylla

FAMILY Verbenaceae

SYNONYMS
A. citriodora, Verbena triphylla, Lippia citriodora, L. triphylla
, verbena, herb Louisa.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A handsome deciduous perennial shrub up to 5 metres high with a woody stem, very fragrant, delicate, pale green, lanceolate leaves arranged in threes, and small, pale purple flowers. Often grown as an ornamental bush in gardens.

DISTRIBUTION Native of Chile and Aregentina; cultivated (and found semi-wild) in the Mediterranean region – France, Tunisia, Algeria – as well as Kenya and China. The oil is mainly produced in southern France and North Africa.

OTHER SPECIES Botanically related to the oregano family – see Botanical Classification section. Not to be mistaken for the so-called ‘Spanish verbena’ or ‘verbena’ oil (Spanish)
(Thymus hiamalis)
, nor confused with the herb ‘vervain’
(Verbena officinalis).
This is further confused since the French name for verbena is
verveine (Verveine citronelle, Verveine odorante).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘The uses of lemon verbena are similar to those of mint, orange flowers and melissa.’
¹⁰⁸
It is indicated especially in nervous conditions which manifest as digestive complaints. The dried leaves are still used as a popular household tea especially on the Continent, both as a refreshing, uplifting ‘pick-me-up’ and to help restore the liver after a hang-over.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, detoxifying, digestive, febrifuge, hepatobiliary stimulant, sedative (nervous), stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the freshly harvested herb.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale olive or yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, lemony, fruity-floral
fragrance. It blends well with neroli, palmarosa, olibanum, Tolu balsam, elemi, lemon and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral (30–35 per cent), nerol and geraniol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Possible sensitization; phototoxicity due to high citral levels. Other safety data is unavailable at present – however, true verbena oil is virtually non-existent. Most so-called ‘verbena oil’ is either from the Spanish verbena (an inferior oil), or a mix of lemongrass, lemon, citronella, etc.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Cramps, indigestion, liver congestion.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Used in perfumery and citrus colognes – ‘eau de verveine’ is still popular in France, Europe and America.

Vetiveria zizanoides

FAMILY Poaceae (Gramineae)

SYNONYMS
Andropogon muricatus
, vetivert, khus khus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, tufted, perennial, scented grass, with a straight stem, long narrow leaves and an abundant complex lacework of undergound white rootlets.

DISTRIBUTION Native to south India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Also cultivated in Reunion, the Philippines, the Comoro Islands, Japan, West Africa and South America. The oil is mainly produced in Java, Haiti and Reunion; some is distilled in Europe and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES Botanically related to lemongrass, citronella, litsea cubeba and flouve oil (also from the roots of a tropical grass).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The rootlets have been used in the East for their fine fragrance since antiquity. They are used by the locals to protect domestic animals from vermin, and the fibres of the grass are woven into aromatic matting. It is grown in India to protect against soil erosion during the tropical rainy season.

In India and Sri Lanka the essence is known as ‘the oil of tranquillity’.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, depurative, rubefacient, sedative (nervous system), stimulant (circulatory, production of red corpuscles), tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the roots and rootlets – washed, chopped, dried and soaked. (A resinoid is also produced by solvent extraction for perfumery work.)

CHARACTERISTICS A dark brown, olive or amber viscous oil with a deep smoky, earthy-woody odour with a sweet persistent undertone. The colour and scent can vary according to the source – Angola produces a very pale oil with a dry-woody odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, violet, jasmine, opopanax, patchouli, oakmoss, lavender, clary sage, mimosa, cassie and ylang ylang.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Vetiverol, vitivone, terpenes, e.g. vetivenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, cuts, oily skin, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, stiffness.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Debility, depression, insomnia, nervous tension – ‘Vetiver is deeply relaxing, so valuable in massage and baths for anybody experiencing stress.’
¹⁰⁹

OTHER USES Employed as a fixative and fragrance ingredient in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. The oil is used in food preservatives, especially for asparagus.

Viola odorata

FAMILY Violaceae

SYNONYMS English violet, garden violet, blue violet, sweet-scented violet.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small, tender, perennial plant with dark green, heart-shaped leaves, fragrant violet-blue flowers and an oblique underground rhizome.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and parts of Asia; cultivated in gardens worldwide. It is mainly grown in southern France (Grasse) and to a lesser extent in Italy and China for perfumery use.

OTHER SPECIES There are over 200 species of violet; the main types cultivated for aromatic extraction are the ‘Parma’ and the ‘Victoria’ violets.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Both the leaf and flowers have a long tradition of use in herbal medicine, mainly for congestive pulmonary conditions and sensitive skin conditions, including capillary fragility. The leaf has also been used to treat cystitis and as a mouthwash for infections of the mouth and
throat. It is reported to have mild pain-killing properties, probably due to the presence of salicylic acid (as in ‘aspirin’).

The flowers are still used to make a ‘syrup of violet’ which is used as a laxative and colouring agent. The dried leaf and flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘eczema and skin eruptions with serious exudate, particularly when associated with rheumatic symptoms’.

ACTIONS Analgesic (mild), anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antiseptic, decongestant (liver), diuretic, expectorant, laxative, soporific, stimulant (circulation).

EXTRACTION A concrete and absolute from 1. fresh leaves, and 2. flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The leaf absolute is an intense dark green viscous liquid with a strong green-leaf odour and a delicate floral undertone. 2. The flower absolute is a yellowish-green viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, floral fragrance, characteristic of the fresh flowers. It blends well with tuberose, clary sage, boronia, tarragon, cumin, hop, basil, hyacinth and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Both leaves and petals contain nonadienal, parmone, hexyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, ionone and viola quercitin, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, eczema, refines the pores, thread veins, wounds.

CIRCULATION
,
MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Fibrosis, poor circulation, rheumatism.