The Locavore's Dilemma (35 page)

7
A vascular plant possesses a well-developed system of conducting tissue to transport mineral salts, water, and sugars.

8
Ronald Bailey. 2010. “Invasion of the Invasive Species! Local Biodiversity is Increasing because of Man, Not Despite Him.”
Reason
(November)
http://reason.com/archives/2010/09/19/invasion-of-the-invasive-speci
.

9
Mark Davis et al. 2011. “Don't Judge Species by their Origins.”
Nature
474 (7350): 153–154.

10
Paul J. Heald and Susannah Chapman. 2011.
Veggie Tales: Pernicious Myths About Patents, Innovation, and Crop Diversity In The Twentieth Century
. Illinois Program in Law, Behavior and Social Science Paper No. LBSS11-34
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1928920
.

11
Mark Davis et al. 2011. “Don't Judge Species by their Origins.”
Nature
474: 153–154.

12
Nina V. Fedoroff and Nancy Marie Brown. 2004.
Mendel in the Kitchen: A Scientist's View of Genetically Modified Foods
, Joseph Henry Press, p. 315.

13
While the debate between proponents of less productive but more diverse agricultural production systems and defenders of large-scale monocultures is
long-standing, our reading of the available evidence suggests that it was won by the latter group. See Pamela Matson and Peter Vitousek, 2006. “Agricultural Intensification: Will Land Spared from Farming Be Land Spared for Nature?”
Conservation Biology
20 (3): 709–710.

14
For more detailed discussions of these issues and additional references, see Paul E. Waggoner. 1996. “How Much Land Can Ten Billion People Spare for Nature?”
Daedalus
125 (3): 73-93; and Pierre Desrochers. 2010. “The Environmental Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits (By Creating Value within the Bounds of Private Property Rights)”
Industrial and Corporate Change
19 (1): 161-204.

15
Plato. 360 BCE.
Critias
(translated by Benjamin Jowett)
http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html
.

16
See Michael Williams. 2003.
Deforesting the Earth. From Prehistory to Global Crisis.
University of Chicago Press, p. 96.

17
G. V. Jacks and R. O. Whyte. 1939.
The Rape of the Earth. A World Survey of Soil Erosion
. Faber and Faber Ltd. The title of the American edition was the more prudish
Vanishing Lands: A World Survey of Soil Erosion
. The notion of the Earth (a female entity) being raped by industry (a male entity) is now a mainstay of so-called ecofeminism.

18
G. V. Jacks and R. O. Whyte. 1939.
The Rape of the Earth. A World Survey of Soil Erosion
. Faber and Faber Ltd, p. 21.

19
G. V. Jacks and R. O. Whyte. 1939.
The Rape of the Earth. A World Survey of Soil Erosion
. Faber and Faber Ltd, p. 26.

20
Dennis Avery. 2000.
Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastics
. Hudson Institute, pp. 7 and 201–202.

21
Several 19th and early 20th-century French writers who made such comments are discussed in Pierre Desrochers and Hiroko Shimizu. 2010.
L'autosuf-fisance alimentaire n'est pas gage de développement durable
. Cahier de recherche de l'Institut économique Molinari
http://www.institutmolinari.org/IMG/pdf/cahier1010_fr.pdf
.

22
Karl Kautsky. 1899 (1988).
The Agrarian Question in Two Volumes
.Zwan Publications, p. 254.

23
A. Y. Hoekstra (ed.). 2003. “Virtual Water Trade: Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade.” Value of Water Research Report Series No.12, UNESCO-IHE
http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report12.pdf
.

24
Michael Williams. 2003.
Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis
. University of Chicago Press.

25
Pekka E. Kauppi, Jesse H. Ausubel, Jingyun Fang, Alexander S. Mather, Roger A. Sedjo and Paul E. Waggoner. (2006). ‘Returning Forests Analyzed with
the Forest Identity',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
103 (46): 17574-17579
http://www.pnas.org/content/103/46/17574.full.pdf+html
The term
forest transition
as used in this essay is based on the Scottish geographer Alexander Mather's concept of a reversal or turnaround in land-use trends for a given territory from net deforestation to net reforestation in times of economic and population growth. As such, it differs from the notion of forest transition commonly used by landscape biologists and physical geographers that describes landscape changes between different ecosystems such as grassland or tundra and forest.

26
In places with stable or growing populations and little ability to import forest products, continued declines in forest cover spur increases in prices of forest products, causing landowners to plant trees instead of crops or pasture grasses. Significant erosion problems and disastrous floods in deforested watersheds have also motivated government officials in developing countries to implement reforestation programs.

27
For more detailed discussions of these issues and additional references, see Paul E. Waggoner. 1996. “How Much Land Can Ten Billion People Spare for Nature?”
Daedalus
125 (3): 73–93; Indur M. Goklany. 2007.
The Improving State of the World
. Cato Institute; Pierre Desrochers. 2010. “The Environmental Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits (By Creating Value within the Bounds of Private Property Rights)”
Industrial and Corporate Change
19 (1): 161–204; and Pierre Desrochers. 2008. “Bringing Inter-Regional Linkages Back In: Industrial Symbiosis, International Trade and the Emergence of the Synthetic Dyes Industry in the Late 19th Century.”
Progress in Industrial Ecology
5 (5–6): 465–481.

28
For a broad and accessible introduction to the purpose, scope and limits of LCA, see, among others, the webpage of the US Environmental Protection Agency on this research methodology at
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/lcaccess/
. We reviewed this literature in more detail in Pierre Desrochers and Hiroko Shimizu. 2008.
Yes, We have no Bananas. A Critique of the ‘Food Miles' Perspective
.Mercatus Policy Series Primer no. 8, Mercatus Center (George Mason University)
http://mercatus.org/publication/yes-we-have-no-bananas-critique-food-miles-perspective?id=24612
.

29
Caroline Saunders and Peter Hayes. 2007.
Air Freight Transport of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables- Report for the International Trade Centre (ITC), Geneva, Switzerland.
Research Report No. 299. New Zealand: AERU, Lincoln University)
http://researcharchive.lincoln.ac.nz/dspace/bitstream/10182/248/1/aeru_rr_299.pdf
.

30
DEFRA. 2005.
Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development
, ED50254 Issue 7 (July)
http://www.defra.gov.uk
.

31
Christopher L. Weber and H. Scott Matthews. 2008. “Food Miles and the Relative Climate Impacts of Food Choices in the United States,”
Environmental Science & Technology
42 (10): 3508-3513.

32
DEFRA. 2005
Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development
, ED50254 Issue 7(July).
http://www.defra.gov.uk
. A ton is a metric measurement of 1000 kilograms (kg), where 1 kg. = 2.2 lbs.

33
Caroline Saunders, Andrew Barber, and Greg Taylor. 2006.
Food miles—Comparative Energy/Emissions Performance of New Zealand's Agriculture Industry
. Research Report No.285, New Zealand: AERU, Lincoln University
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/documents/2328_rr285_s13389.pdf
Apples and similar fruits are frequently kept in storage with higher than normal CO2 concentrations. Temperature control involves either maintaining lower than ambient temperatures to inhibit spoilage or maintaining higher than ambient temperatures to prevent freezing, depending on the location.

34
LlorençMilà i Canals, Sarah J. Cowell, Sarah Sim, and Lauren Basson. 2007. “Comparing Domestic versus Imported Apples: A Focus on Energy Use
,
”
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
14 (5): 338-344.

35
Jenny Gustavson; Christel Cederberg, Ulf Sonesson, Robert van Otterdijk, Robert and Alexandre Meybeck. 2011.
Global Food Losses and Food Waste.
FAO. The number is based on 2007 data.
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/GFL_web.pdf
. See also Amanda D. Cuéllar and Michael E. Webber. 2010. “Wasted Food, Wasted Energy: The Embedded Energy in Food Waste in the United States.”
Environmental Science & Technology
44 (6): 6464–6469. For recent discussions of these issues, see H. Charles J. Godfray et al. 2010. “The Future of the Global Food System.”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
365 (3554): 2769–2777
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/2769.abstract
; John D. Floros et al. 2010. “Feeding the World Today and Tomorrow: The Importance of Food Science and Technology.”
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Technology
9 (5): 572–599
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00127.x/abstract
.

36
Lorrayne Ventour. 2008. “The Food We Waste” WRAP
http://wrap.s3.amazonaws.com/the-food-we-waste.pdf
See also Tara Garnett. 2006. “
Fruit and Vegetables & UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Exploring the Relationship.
” FCRN Working paper 06-01, rev. A, Food Climate Research Network
http://www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/fruitveg_paper_final.pdf
.

37
Kenneth Marsh and Betty Bugusu. 2007. “Food Packaging: Roles, Materials and Environmental Issues.”
Journal of Food Science
72 (3): R39–R55
http://www.ift.org/knowledge-center/read-ift-publications/science-reports/scientific-status-summaries/~/media/Knowledge%20Center/Science%20Reports/Scientific%20Status%20Summaries/FoodPackagingEnviron_0407.pdf
.

38
Quoted in Paul Monaghan. 2008. “Why the Co-Op Is Wary of Food Miles Labeling.”
The Guardian
(Green Living Blog) April 24
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/ethicallivingblog/2008/apr/24/soilassociation-vcoop?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487
.

39
For a more detailed discussion of this issue, see Kelly Rae Chi, James Mc-Gregor and Richard King. 2009.
Fair Miles: Recharting the Food Miles Map.
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and Oxfam
http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/15516IIED.pdf
.

40
Tracy Miles. 2006. “Concern Mounts over UK Soil Association Food Miles Plan.”
Organic Pathways
http://www.organicpathways.co.nz/business/story/567.html
.

41
International Trade Statistics
http://www.intracen.org/tradsat
and Trade Competitive Map
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom
.

42
Catherine Riungu. 2005. “Why Kenya Dominates Export of Flowers to the EU market,”
The East African
(February 21)
http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/-/2560/245890/-/7oem2tz/-/index.html
.

43
James MacGregor and Bill Vorley. 2006. “Fair Miles?: The Concept of “Food Miles” through a Sustainable Development Lens.”
Fresh Perspectives
No.1 (IIED)
http://pubs.iied.org/11064IIED.html
.

44
Freshinfo. 2008. “Airfreight Proposals Vilified by Industry.” (April 8)
http://www.agrifoodstandards.net/en/news/global/airfreight_proposals_vilified_by_industry.html
.

45
James MacGregor and Bill Vorley. 2006. “Fair Miles?: The Concept of “Food Miles” through a Sustainable Development Lens.”
Fresh Perspectives
No.1 (IIED)
http://pubs.iied.org/11064IIED.html
.

46
James MacGregor and MuyeyeChambwara. 2007. “Room to Move: ‘Eco-logicalSpace” and Emissions Equity,”
Fresh Perspective
No.14 (IIED)
http://pubs.iied.org/17023IIED.html
.

47
Adrian Williams. 2007.
Comparative Study of Cut Roses for the British Market Produced in Kenya and the Netherlands,
Précis Report for World Flowers (Cranfield University)
http://wwww.fairflowers.de/fileadmin/flp.de/Redaktion/Dokumente/Studien/Comparative_Study_of_Cut_Roses_Feb_2007.pdf
.

48
Adrian Williams. 2007.
Comparative Study of Cut Roses for the British Market Produced in Kenya and the Netherlands,
Précis Report for World Flowers (Cranfield University
http://wwww.fairflowers.de/fileadmin/flp.de/Redaktion/Dokumente/Studien/Comparative_Study_of_Cut_Roses_Feb_2007.pdf
.

49
Peter W. Huber and Mark P. Mills. 2000. “How Cities Green the Planet.”
City Journal
(Winter)
http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_1_how_cities.html
.

50
Ed Glaeser. 2011.
Triumph of the City. How our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier.
Penguin Press, p. 201.

51
David Owen. 2009. “Is Locavorism Good for the Environment?”
http://www.davidowen.net
(September 9)
www.davidowen.nethttp://www.davidowen.net/david_owen/2009/09/is-locavorism-good-for-the-environment.html
.His more detailed argument can be found in David Owen. 2009.
Green Cities. Why Living Smaller, Living Closer, and Driving Less are the Keys to Sustainability.
Riverhead Books.

52
For a more detailed discussion of these issues, see Ed Glaeser. 2011.
Triumph of the City. How our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier.
Penguin Press.