47
Because our aim in the following paragraphs is limited to the importance of transportation and economic development as they relate to food security, we limit ourselves to generally agreed upon facts rather than more controversial political debates (e.g., the impact of the land tenure system on peasant behavior, British trade policy and the nature and the actual scope and impact of public relief efforts). Concise discussions and further references on the subject can be found in Ellen Messer. 2000. “Potatoes (White).” In Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas (eds).
The Cambridge World History of Food
. Cambridge University Press
http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/potatoes.htm
; and Cormac à Gráda. 2009. “Irish Famine” in Cutler J. Cleveland.
Encyclopedia of the Earth
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Irish_famine?topic=49465
. For a more sophisticated analysis of the subjects dealt with in the following paragraphs, including the impact of the potato blight in other European countries, see Cormac à Gráda, Richard Paping and Eric Vanhaute. 2007.
When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the âLast' European Subsistence Crisis.
Brepols.
48
Joseph T. Leydon. 1995. “The Irish Provision Trade to the Caribbean, c. 1650â1780: An Historical Geography.” PhD Thesis, University of Toronto; Bertie Mandelblatt. 2007. “A Transatlantic Commodity: Irish Salt Beef in the French Atlantic World.”
History Workshop Journal
63 (1): 18â47.
49
Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode. 2008.
Creating Abundance. Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development.
Cambridge University Press, p. 264.
51
Denis Mack Smith. 1981.
Mussolini
. Alfred Knopf, p. 122. For a more detailed account of the “Battaglia del grano,” see also Alexander Nützenadel. 2006. “Dictating Food: Autarchy, Food Provision, and Consumer Politics in Fascist Italy, 1922-1943.” In Frank Trentmann and Flemming Just. 2006.
Food and Conflict in the Age of the Two World Wars.
Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 88â108.
55
For much evidence in this respect, see Steven Pinker. 2011.
The Better Angels of our Nature.
Viking.
56
Dennis T. Avery. 2000.
Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Platics,
2nd edition. Hudson Institute, pp. 383â384.
57
We are not concerned here with rationing schemes, price controls, regulations and subsidies. This list was mainly derived from Karl Brandt (with Otto Schiller and Franz Ahlgrimm). 1953.
Management of Agriculture and Food in the German-Occupied and Other Areas of Fortress Europe. A Study in Military Government)
. Stanford University Press; and Mancur Olson. 1963.
The Economics of the Wartime Shortage: A History of British Food Supplies in the Napoleonic War and in World Wars I and II.
Duke University Press.
58
This summary account is based on Karl Brandt. 1945.
The Reconstruction of World Agriculture.
W.W. Norton & Company, chapter 1; C. Paul Vincent. 1985.
The Politics of Hunger. The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915â1919.
Ohio University Press, chapter 5; and Ernest H. Starling. 1920. “The Food Supply of Germany during the War.”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
83 (2): 225â254. Detailed figures as to the actual performance of German agriculture at the time are available in the latter reference.
59
Karl Brandt. 1945.
The Reconstruction of World Agriculture.
W.W. Norton & Company, p. 10.
60
Ernest H. Starling. 1920. “The Food Supply of Germany during the War.”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
83 (2): 225â254, p. 230.
61
Arturo Bruttini. 1923.
Uses of Waste Materials
. P. S. King & Son Ltd, pp. 36â37.
62
Ernest H. Starling. 1920. “The Food Supply of Germany during the War.”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
83 (2): 225â254, p. 233.
63
Ernest H. Starling. 1920. “The Food Supply of Germany during the War.”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
83 (2): 225â254, p. 244.
64
This section is based for the most part on Karl Brandt (with Otto Schiller and Franz Ahlgrimm). 1953.
Management of Agriculture and Food in the German-Occupied and Other Areas of Fortress Europe. A Study in Military Government
(Volume II of
Germany's Agricultural and Food Policies in World War II)
. Stanford University Press, chapter 20: Denmark, pp. 299â311.
65
Karl Brandt (with Otto Schiller and Franz Ahlgrimm). 1953.
Management of Agriculture and Food in the German-Occupied and Other Areas of Fortress Europe. A Study in Military Government
(Volume II of
Germany's Agricultural and Food Policies in World War II)
.Stanford University Press, pp. 300 and 310.
67
Karl Brandt. 1945.
The Reconstruction of World Agriculture.
W.W. Norton & Company, pp. 271â273.
68
Karl Brandt (with Otto Schiller and Franz Ahlgrimm). 1953.
Management of Agriculture and Food in the German-Occupied and Other Areas of Fortress Europe. A Study in Military Government
(Volume II of
Germany's Agricultural and Food Policies in World War II)
. Stanford University Press, p. 303.
69
Karl Brandt (Otto Schiller and Franz Ahlgrimm). 1953.
Management of Agriculture and Food in the German-Occupied and Other Areas of Fortress Europe. A Study in Military Government
(Volume II of
Germany's Agricultural and Food Policies in World War II)
. Stanford University Press, p. 310.
70
For more detailed introductions to energy issues that expand on the themes developed in this section, see Robert L. Bradley and Richard W. Fulmer. 2004.
Energy: The Master Resource.
Kendall Hunt Publishing Company
http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2008/07/18/energy-the-master-resource/
and Vaclav Smil. 2010.
Energy Myths and Realities: Bringing Science to the Energy Policy Debate.
AEI (American Enterprise Institute) Press.
72
In short, bunker fuel is what is left once more valuable products such as jet fuel, gasoline and diesel have been extracted from petroleum. The only things denser than this fraction of petroleum are carbon black feedstock and bituminous residue used for paving roads and sealing roofs. Because of the high sulfur content of bunker fuel, container ships are often mandated to switch to less polluting “marine diesel” as they get closer to coastlines.
75
For an accessible survey of the technical literature on the role of international trade in mitigating the effects of climate change, see Gerald Nelson, Amanda Palazzo, Claudia Ringler, Timothy Sulser and MiroslavBatka. 2009.
The Role of International Trade in Climate Change Adaptation
. Issue Brief #4.
ICTSD (International Center for Trade and Sustainable Development) and IF&ATPC (International Food and Agricultural Policy Trade Council)
http://www.agritrade.org/events/documents/IssueBrief4_web.pdf
.
76
Discussions of previous generations' fears of human-induced climate change are found in Hans Von Storch and Nico Stehr. 2006. “Anthropogenic Climate Change: A Reason for Concern since the 18th Century and Earlier.”
Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography
88(2): 107-113; and Mike Hulme. 2008. “The Conquering of Climate: Discourse of Fear and Their Dissolution.”
Geographical Journal
174 (1): 5â16. Human-produced carbon dioxide is about 3% of greenhouse gas concentrations if one exclude water vapor, and insignificant if water vapor is included as a greenhouse gas.
78
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2010.
The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises.
FAO
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf
On a global level, the rural poor are more than three times more numerous than urban poor and rural poverty is twice as prevalent as urban poverty.
Chapter 6
1
“Sophistication” in this context refers to making impure and adulterating.
3
For a much more elaborate discussion of the evolution of the size, shape and capability of the human body in the last three centuries, see Roderick Floud, Robert W. Fogel, Bernard Harris and Sok Chu Hong. 2011.
The Changing Body: Health, Nutrition and Human Development in the Western World since 1700.
Cambridge University Press and National Bureau of Economic Research;
and Timothy Cuff. 2004. “Historical Anthropometrics.” In Robert Whaples (ed.)
EH.Net Encyclopedia
http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/cuff.anthropometric
.
4
Clifford Cook Furnas and Sparkle Moore Furnas. 1937.
Man, Bread and Destiny
. The Williams & Wilkins Company, p. xiii.
5
Frances and Joseph Gies.
Life in a Medieval Village.
Harper and Row, Publishers, pp. 96â98.
6
Brian Murton. 2000. “Famine.” In Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild-ConeèOrnelas.
The Cambridge World History of Food
. Cambridge University Press, pp. 1411â1427, p. 1412.
7
Lizzie Collingham. 2011.
The Taste of War. World War II and the Battle for Food
. Allen Lane, p. 18.
8
Gregory Clark. 2007.
A Farewell to Alms
. Princeton University Press, pp. 38â41.
9
Thomas R. DeGregori. 2002.
Bountiful Harvest: Technology, Food Safety and the Environment
. Cato Institute, p. 93.
10
Roderick Floud, Robert W. Fogel, Bernard Harris and Sok Chu Hong. 2011.
The Changing Body: Health, Nutrition and Human Development in the Western World since 1700.
Cambridge University Press and National Bureau of Economic Research, p. 1.
11
Matt Ridley. 2010.
The Rational Optimist. How Prosperity Evolves
. HarperCollins Publishers, p. 18.
12
Jeffrey M. Pilcher. 2006.
Food in World History
. Routledge, p. 20.
13
Jeffrey M. Pilcher. 2006.
Food in World History
. Routledge, p. 55.
14
Roderick Floud, Robert W. Fogel, Bernard Harris and Sok Chu Hong. 2011.
The Changing Body: Health, Nutrition and Human Development in the Western World since 1700.
Cambridge University Press and National Bureau of Economic Research, p. 5.