The Oxford History of the Biblical World (106 page)

JO ANN HACKETT
is Professor of the Practice of Biblical Hebrew and Northwest Semitic Epigraphy at Harvard University. She is the author of
The Balaam Text from Tell Deir ‘Alia
and has also written extensively on epigraphy, child sacrifice, and women in the books of Judges and 1 and 2 Samuel. She is currently working on a book of translations of Phoenician and Punic inscriptions and on a project to develop a digital edition of Ugaritic texts.

MARY JOAN WINN LEITH
is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Stonehill College. She is the author of
Wadi Daliyeh I: The Wadi Daliyeh Seal Impressions
and a contributor to the
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Women in Religion
and to the forthcoming revised edition of the
New Oxford Annotated Bible.
She is currently at work on a reference text titled
People of the Bible.

AMY-JILL LEVINE
is E. Rhodes and Leona B. Carpenter Professor of New Testament Studies and Director of the Carpenter Program in Religion, Gender, and Sexuality at Vanderbilt Divinity School. She has published books on the Gospel of Matthew and Jewish women in antiquity. Forthcoming is her book
Threatened Bodies: Women, Culture, Apocrypha;
she is also editing a ten-volume series on feminist interpretations of early Christian texts.

CAROL MEYERS
is Professor of Biblical Studies and Archaeology at Duke University and is currently codirector of the Sepphoris Regional Project. She has written, edited, and coedited twelve books, including
Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context; Families in Ancient Israel; Haggai, Zechariah 1–8
and
Zechariah 9–14
(both in the Anchor Bible); and
Women in Scripture.

WAYNE T. PITARD
is Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is the author
of Ancient Damascus: A Historical Study of the Syrian City-State from Earliest Times until Its Fall to the Assyrians in 732
and numerous articles on the history of Syria-Palestine, the Ugaritic tablets, and concepts of death and afterlife in ancient Syria.

CAROL A. REDMOUNT
is Professor of Egyptian and Syro-Palestinian Archaeology at the University of California-Berkeley. She has excavated throughout the Near East since 1971 and in Egypt since 1978; since 1992 she has directed excavations at Tell el-Muqdam in the Egyptian delta. Her research and publications focus on the archaeology of the delta, interrelationships between Egypt and Syria-Palestine in the second millennium
BCE
, and ancient and ethnoarchaeological ceramic studies.

DANIEL N. SCHOWALTER
is Professor of Religion at Carthage College. He is the author of
The Emperor and the Gods: Images from the Time of Trajan
and contributes to the Archaeo-logical Resources for New Testament Studies series. He is writing a commentary on the Petrine Epistles.

LAWRENCE E. STAGER
is Dorot Professor of the Archaeology of Israel and Director of the Semitic Museum at Harvard University. He has directed archaeological expeditions to Carthage (Tunisia), Idalion (Cyprus), and Ashkelon (Israel). His publications have focused on the archaeology and history of Canaanites, Phoenicians, Israelites, and Philistines. He is currently writing a book on the shared cosmology and symbolism of Jerusalem and the Garden of Eden.

Aaron, as name, 65

Abar Nahara, 280, 282, 286, 299, 305

Abd al-Malik, 443

Abdi-ashirta (ruler of Syria), 49–50

Abdi-Hepa (king of pre-Israelite Jerusalem), 47–48, 84

abecedary, 155

Abner, 193

Abraham

and Aqhat epic, 51

as father of Israelites and Midianites, 108

in Genesis, 25–26

promises to, 26, 28

and Sarah (Abram and Sarai), 26

Achaeans.
See
Mycenaean empire

Achaemenids, 278.
See also
Persian period

Achsaph (Khirbet el-Harbaj), 99

Ackroyd, Peter R., 315

Actium, battle of, 356, 390, 400, 452

Acts of the Apostles, 372–75, 396

Adad-nirari III, 231, 233, 449

Adam and Eve, 21

Adullam (Khirbet ‘Adullam), 98

Aelia Capitolina, 422

agrarian culture, and formation of state in ancient Israel, 179–80, 202–03

agricultural sedentarism, 102

agriculture

in Early Bronze Age, 17

in Palestine, 5

Agrippa I, 362, 376–77, 452

Agrippa II, 357, 362, 378–79, 381, 382, 452

Agrippina, 401

Ahab (king of Israel), 211, 219–21, 222–23, 449

death of, 215

military operations of, 220–21

Ahaz (king of Judah), 449

and Assyria, 242

Ahaziah of Judah, 228–29, 230

and Tel Dan inscription, 211

Ahiram, sarcophagus of, 157

Ahmose (king of Egypt), 43, 79–81

Ahzai (governor of Yehud), 296

Ai, 114

and conquest of Canaan, 96, 98

Ain el-Qudeirat, 67

Ain Ghazal

archaeology of, 11–12

Akhenaten, 45, 46–7, 48–49, 76, 82–84, 448

and Egyptian religion, 82

and monotheism, 111

name, 82

Akhetaten (Tell el-Amarna), 37, 46, 68, 82

Akiba, Rabbi, 422

Akkad, 8, 37

dynasty of, 33

and Sumer, 31

Akkadian language, 8

Amarna letters, 46

Ugarit letters, 118–119

Akra, 328, 333, 334, 335

Alalakh, 37, 40, 43

tablets, 40

Alaric (Visigothic Arian king), 432

Albinus (governor of Judea), 379, 380, 502, 503

Albrektson, Bertil, 23

Albright, William Foxwell, 94, 109, 127, 129

Alcimus (Yaqim), 333–34

Aleppo, 37

excavations at, 40

in Late Bronze Age, 43

Alexander Balas, 334

Alexander Janneus, 335–39, 342, 366, 451

Alexander the Great, 278, 279, 282, 314–15, 317–23, 347, 451

death of, 319

Alexandra (queen of Judea), 339, 343, 352–53, 357, 451

Alexandria, 320, 325, 400

Alexandrion, fortress of, 332, 353

alphabet, invention of, 42, 447

Alt, Albrecht, 102, 103, 129, 217, 240

’am,
Israelite, 113

Amalekites, 107

Amarna

art, 83

letters, 18, 46–50, 72, 83–84, 158

mention of Sea Peoples in, 85

Phoenician cities in, 154

period, 82–84, 86–87

Amasis (pharaoh), 292

Ambrose (bishop of Milan), 427

Amel-marduk (Evil-merodach), 269

Amenhotep I, 43

Amenhotep II, 44, 82, 84

Amenhotep III, 44, 76, 82, 83, 108

Amenhotep IV.
See
Akhenaten

Ammon, 68, 79, 91, 95, 153–54, 167, 224, 280, 287

Ammonite language, 154

Ammonites

in Genesis, 154

in Numbers and Judges, 154

religion of, 156

Ammurapi (king of Ugarit), 117, 118

Amorite kingdoms, 34

Amorites, 34–35, 448

in Genesis, 154

in Numbers and Judges, 154

Amos (prophet), 234–36, 248

Amos, book of, 228

and Jeroboam II, 232–33

and Philistines, 113

and Samaria ostraca, 212

themes of, 234

amphictyony, 145

Amurru, 43, 45, 48–50, 52, 84, 85

Amut-pi-el (ruler of Qatna), 41

anachronism, 28

Ananel (high priest), 357

Anat (goddess of war), 51

Anatolia, 84, 153

cult, and Israel, 156

ancestor worship, 156

ancestral narratives, and ancient Near East, 53–55

angels, Sadducees and, 365

anointing

of king, 197

symbolism of, 198

Anthony (monk), 435

anthropology, and Israelite monarchy, 177–78

Antigonus (son of Aristobolus II), 356

Antigonus (son of John Hyrcanus), 337

Antiochus III, 324, 451

Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 322, 326–30, 331, 341, 451

and Jews, 326–30

and Samaritans, 347

Antiochus V, 333

Antiochus VI, 335

Antiochus VII, 336

Antiochus VIII, 336

Antiochus IX, 336–37

Antipas, 360, 452

building projects of, 362

Antipater, 339, 353, 355–56

Antonia fortress, 380, 383

Antoninus Pius (emperor of Rome), 418, 422

Antonius Felix (governor of Judea), 378

Antony, Mark, 355–56, 390

Aper-El (Asiatic in Egypt), 75–76

Aphek, 99

Apiru, 47–49, 72, 84, 86, 103–04

Apocalypse of Peter, 433

apocalyptic, origins of, 301

apocalypticists, 429

Apostolic Constitutions, 431

Appian, 421

Apries (pharaoh), 265

Apsu (Babylonian god), 8

Apum.
See
Damascus

Aqhat epic, and ancestral narratives in Genesis, 51

Aquila and Priscilla, 379

Arabah, the, 5, 6, 9

Arabian Desert, 9

Arabian Peninsula, 5

and Mount Sinai, 107

Arad, 68, 184, 208, 263

archaeology of, 98

Aramaic language, 321

Babylonian exile and, 270

and book of Ezra, 279

Jesus and, 370

in Persian period, 278–79

in Roman period, 353

Ara Pads, 390, 392

archaeological survey, 176–77, 181

archaeology

and early monarchy, 176–77

and formation of state in early Israel, 181–92
See also
under individual sites

Archelaus, 360

architecture

in Iron Age Israel, 187–89

in Mesopotamian cities, 17

monumental, 188

synagogue, 438–39

Arch of Titus, 358, 384, 408, 410, 421

Aretas III (ruler of Nabatea), 338, 339, 353

Aristobulus I, 336–38

Aristobulus II, 339–40, 352–53

Aristobulus III, 357

ark of the covenant, 172

brought by David to Jerusalem, 198–99

captured by Philistines, 127

and Israelite religion, 156–58

as Yahweh’s throne, 198

ark of Yahweh, 198.
See also
ark of the covenant

Armanum, 31

Armstrong, Karen, 444

arrowheads and inscriptions, 155

Arses (Achaemenid king), 314

Artaxerxes I, 299, 302, 304–05, 451

Artaxerxes II, 451

Arvad, 37, 43, 154–55

Aryandes, 302

Asa (king of Judah), 215–16

Ashdod, 114, 120, 127, 138, 152, 153, 186, 263, 280, 287, 332

Asherah, 221, 234

as wife of El in Ugaritic pantheon, 51

Ashkelon, 68, 91–92, 97, 114, 121, 123–24, 127, 138, 146, 152, 153, 263, 287, 332

bronze linchpin from, 126

Ashur (Assyrian deity), 156

Ashurbanipal, 254, 258, 450

Ashur-dan II, 176

Ashurnasirpal, 220

Ashur-uballit, 258

Assyria, 8, 37, 85, 224, 263

defeat of, by Babylonia, 258–59

empire of, 224, 242–74

history of Israel and, 176, 236–40

and kingdom of Judah, 242–69

religion of, 255

sources from, 243–44

Assyrian annals, 243–44

Aten, 82, 111

Athaliah (queen of Judah), 229, 230, 449

Athanasius, 433

Athenagoras, 417

Athtar, 32

Atrahasis,
20, 21