The Transformation of the World (199 page)

100
. Lothar Höbelt, “The Austrian Empire,” in: R. J. Goldstein,
War for the Public Mind
, pp. 226f.

101
. Hildermeier,
Geschichte Russlands
, pp. 1261–69.

102
. Bayly,
Empire and Information
, p. 239.

103
. Abeyasekere,
Jakarta
, pp. 59f.

104
. See Janku,
Nur leere Reden
, e.g., p. 179.

105
. Huffman,
Creating a Public
, p. 222.

106
. Judge,
Print and Politics
, p. 33.

107
. Vittinghoff,
Journalismus in China
, esp. pp. 73ff.

108
. Ayalon,
Press in the Arab Middle East
, p. 30.

109
. Christoph Herzog, “Die Entwicklung der türkisch-osmanischen Presse im Osmanischen Reich bis ca. 1875,” in: Rothermund,
Aneignung
, pp. 15–44, at 31, 34.

110
. Ayalon,
Press in the Arab Middle East
, p. 41.

111
. Ayalon,
Political Journalism
, pp. 103, 108.

112
. See the case study of Aleppo in Watenpaugh,
Being Modern
, pp. 70 ff.

113
. W. König and Weber,
Netzwerke
, pp. 522–25; Smil,
Creating the Twentieth Century
, pp. 204–6.

114
. On the beginnings of investigative journalism and its later turn to “muckraking,” see T. C. Leonard,
Power of the Press
, pp. 137 ff.

115
. T. C. Leonard,
News for All
, p. 47.

116
. A fine description of the paper is given in Emery,
Press and America
, pp. 225–35.

117
. Livois,
Histoire de la presse française
, vol. 1, p. 274.

118
. Juergens,
Joseph Pulitzer
, p. vii.

119
. Cranfield,
Press and Society
, pp. 160, 220.

120
. Emery,
Press and America
, p. 345.

121
. For the United States, see Baldasty,
Commercialization of News
, pp. 59ff.; and for Britain, L. Brown,
Victorian News
, pp. 16f.

122
. Huffman,
Creating a Public
.

123
. A large amount of Russell's journalism is available in themed collections, some of them recently reprinted by Cambridge University Press. See also Daniel,
Augenzeugen
.

124
. Headrick,
Tools
, p. 158. See also
chapter 14
, below.

125
. S. J. Potter,
Communication
, p. 196.

126
. Read,
Power of News
, pp. 7, 32, 40 (quotation); cf. S. J. Potter,
News
, pp. 16–35, 87–105; on the history of cable corporations and news agencies, see Winseck and Pike,
Communication and Empire
, esp. chs. 6 and 7.

127
. On foreign correspondents, see L. Brown,
Victorian News
, ch. 10.

128
. Briggs and Burke,
Media
, pp. 155–63.

129
. Pre-photographic techniques of observation cannot be considered here: see Crary,
Techniques of the Observer
. Nor will I broach the difficult question of the relationship between photography and “realist” art: see, inter alia, the remarks in Fried,
Menzel's
Realism
, pp. 247–52.

130
. Hörisch,
Sinn
, pp. 227–29.

131
. T. C. Leonard,
Power of the Press
, p. 100.

132
. Gernsheim,
History of Photography
, p. 159.

133
. Newhall,
History of Photography
, p. 89.

134
. M. Davis,
Late Victorian Holocausts
, pp. 147f.

135
. Jäger,
Photographie
, pp. 48, 51.

136
. Stiegler,
Philologie des Auges
, pp. 136–41.

137
. A key book for the history of ethnographic photography is the exhibition catalog: Theye,
Schatten
, esp. pp. 61ff.

138
. Gernsheim,
History of Photography
, p. 447.

139
. J. R. Ryan,
Picturing Empire
, pp. 73ff.

140
. See the examples in Gernsheim,
History of Photography
, p. 116.

141
. See the wonderful material in Majluf et al.,
La recuperación de la memoria
.

142
. Faroqhi,
Subjects of the Sultan
, pp. 258f.

143
. A particularly successful example is Ayshe Erdogdu, “Picturing Alterity: Representational Strategies in Victorian-Type Photographs of Ottoman Men,” in: Hight and Sampson,
Colonialist Photography
, pp. 107–25.

144
. On the early history of the cinema, see also Hörisch,
Sinn
, pp. 284–92.

145
. Rittaud-Hutinet,
Le cinéma
, pp. 32, 228–39.

146
. Leyda,
Dianying
, p. 2.

147
. Harding and Popple,
Kingdom of Shadows
, p. 20.

148
. Leyda,
Dianying
, p. 4.

149
. Toeplitz,
Geschichte des Films
, p. 25.

150
. There is a growing literature on the history of sound recording. A classic in the field remains Gelatt,
Fabulous Phonograph
.

151
. See also
chapter 16
, below.

CHAPTER II: Time

    1
. J. M. Roberts,
Twentieth Century
, p. 3.

    2
. Wills,
1688: A Global History
; Bernier,
The World in 1800
.

    3
. Pot,
Sinndeutung
, p. 52, referring to such authorities as Jan Romein, Lucien Febvre, and R. G. Collingwood.

    4
. Tanaka,
New Times
, p. 112.

    5
. On the theories of time underpinning this, see Kwong,
Linear Perspective
.

    6
. Kirch,
On the Road
, pp. 293f.

    7
. Today's standard work sets this out in detail; see Strachan,
First World War
.

    8
. See Manela,
Wilsonian Moment
.

    9
. Eichhorn,
Geschichtswissenschaft
, pp. 145–52.

  10
. Evidence for the varied use of “modernity” is collected in Corfield,
Time
, pp. 134–38.

  11
. Wolfgang Reinhard suspects that this is the case; see his “The Idea of Early Modern History,” in Bentley,
Companion
, pp. 281–92, at 290.

  12
. Cf. P. Nolte,
Einheit
.

  13
. Hobsbawm,
Revolution
,
Capital
, and
Empire
.

  14
. E. Wilkinson,
Chinese History
, pp. 196f.

  15
. On the pragmatic reasons why the Gregorian calendar was preferred, see Watkins
Time Counts
, p. 47. Along with Watkins's classic, the best modern history of the calendar is E. G. Richards,
Mapping Time
.

  16
. E. G. Richards,
Mapping Time
, p. 114.

  17
. See Gardet et al.,
Cultures and Time
, pp. 201, 208.

  18
. E. G. Richards,
Mapping Time
, p. 236.

  19
. Wilcox,
Measure of Times Past
, p. 8.

  20
. Tanaka,
New Times
, p. 11.

  21
. Brownlee,
Japanese Historians
, p. 209.

  22
. Coulmas,
Japanische Zeiten
, p 127; Zöllner,
Japanische Zeitrechnung
, p. 9; Tanaka,
New Times
, pp. 5f., 9.

  23
. Zerubavel,
Time Maps
, pp. 89ff., speaks of “firstism.”

  24
. Keirstead,
Inventing Medieval Japan
.

  25
. Pot,
Sinndeutung
, p. 63.

  26
. Troeltsch,
Historismus
, pp. 756, 765.

  27
. However, some historians have made bold suggestions for carving up world history into fairly thin temporal slices of three to four decades. See Wills,
The World from 1450 to 1700
.

  28
. Cited in Raulff,
Der unsichtbare Augenblick
, p. 19.

  29
. Barry,
Influenza
.

  30
. See Wigen,
Japanese Periphery
, p. 19. The author had in mind 1868, the central date in nineteenth-century Japanese history.

  31
. Hans-Heinrich Nolte has even postulated a major epoch in world history stretching from the fifteenth to the end of the nineteenth century; see his
Weltgeschichte
.

  32
. Cf. Green,
Periodization
, pp. 36, 46, 50, 52f.

  33
. Schilling,
Die neue Zeit
, pp. 10–15.

  34
. Gerhard,
Old Europe
. A similar approach had been taken previously by the famous historians Otto Brunner and Otto Hintze.

  35
. Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
.

  36
. Macfarlane,
Savage Wars of Peace
; A. Reid,
An Age of Commerce
, pp. 5f.; idem,
Charting the Shape
, pp. 1–14, esp. 7.

  37
. The concept of a “long” eighteenth century (c. 1680–1830) has been argued for in Osterhammel,
Entzauberung Asiens
, pp. 31–37. On the enlarged meaning of the eighteenth century, cf. Blussé and Gaastra,
Eighteenth Century
; Nussbaum,
Global Eighteenth Century
.

  38
. Quataert,
Ottoman Empire
, p. 54; Kreiser,
Der osmanische Staat
, pp. 36ff.

  39
. See the authoritative account in Totman,
Early Modern Japan
; cf. J. W. Hall
, Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 4.

  40
. R. Oliver and Atmore,
Medieval Africa
.

  41
. Quoted in Jordheim,
Against Periodization
, p. 156.

  42
. For a first impression of the period turn to Blom,
Vertigo Years
.

  43
. Nitschke et al.,
Jahrhundertwende
.

  44
. E.g., Dejung and Petersson,
Foundations of Worldwide Economic Integration
.

  45
. This is a periodization suggested in the six-volume
History of the World
edited by Akira Iriye and Jürgen Osterhammel (Cambridge, MA 2012ff.). See E. S. Rosenberg,
A World Connecting
.

  46
. The term should not be used naively, without an awareness of the rich history behind it. On post-Victorian (British) perceptions of the Victorians, see Gardiner,
The Victorians
.

  47
. G. M. Young,
Portrait
, p. 151.

  48
. For example, Searle,
A New England?

  49
. Rudolf Vierhaus, “Vom Nutzen und Nachteil des Begriffs ‘Frühe Neuzeit': Fragen und Thesen,” in: Vierhaus et al.,
Frühe Neuzeit
, p. 21.

  50
. One might also turn the question around and focus on the new beginning in the 1840s, as the great social historian Jerome Blum does convincingly in his last work,
In the Beginning
.

  51
. Bayly,
Birth of the Modern World
, pp. 110ff. The argument is more striking in Bayly's earlier writings, when it was not yet mixed in with a particular interpretation of globalization: see esp.
First Age
.

  52
. This emerges clearly in F. Anderson,
Crucible
; McLynn,
1759
; and above all, in a masterly work, Marshall,
Making
, pp. 86–157.

  53
. Palmer,
Democratic Revolution
; Godechot,
France
. For the background, cf. Bailyn,
Atlantic History
, pp. 15–15, 24–30.

  54
. See Bayly,
Imperial Meridian
, p. 164; Förster,
Weltkrieg
, especially on the global military context; and Michael Duffy, “World-Wide War and British Expansion, 1793–1815,” in Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 2, pp. 184–207.

  55
. Here the founding of the United States, the Haitian revolution, and the independence of South and Central America should be seen as a single interlinked process, as they are, for example, in Langley,
The Americas
.

  56
. See Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, pp. 81–96.

  57
. C. A. Bayly, “The British and Indigenous Peoples, 1760–1860: Power, Perception and Identity,” in: Daunton and Halpern,
Empire and Others
, pp. 29–31. See also
chapter 7
, below.

  58
. Again, it is Bayly,
Imperial Meridian
, where this point is underscored forcefully.

  59
. A model for such research may be found in Dipper,
Übergangsgesellschaft
.

  60
. Maddison,
World Economy
, p. 27; and
Contours
, pp. 73f.

  61
. Wrigley,
People
, p. 3.

  62
. Ibid., pp. 10f.; J. R. McNeill,
Something New under the Sun
, p. xxiii, 298; Smil,
Energy
, pp. 156ff.

  63
. Foucault,
Order of Things
, pp. 248ff.

  64
. C. Rosen,
Classical Style
; idem,
Romantic Generation
.

  65
. P. Nolte,
1900
, p. 300.

  66
. J. R. McNeill,
Something New under the Sun
, p. 14; and see Fig. 6.5 in Smil,
Energy
, p. 233.