The Transformation of the World (203 page)

131
. Newitt,
Mozambique
, pp. 268–72; on Mauritius as a slave market, see Vaughan,
Creole Island
, pp. 103–8.

132
. H. S. Klein,
Slave Trade
, pp. 210f. (Tab. A.1).

133
. See the illuminating study Law,
Ouidah
, pp. 189–203. See also Eltis and Richardson,
Atlas
, 287.

134
. J. Fisch,
Geschichte Südafrikas
, p. 103.

135
. For Senegal, see Searing,
West African Slavery
, p. 166.

136
. Manning,
Slavery
, p. 84.

137
. H. S. Klein,
Slavery and Colonial Rule
, p. 55.

138
. Lovejoy,
Transformations
, pp. 65 ff.; Law,
Ouidah
, p. 77.

139
. See Isichei,
History
, pp. 290–312.

140
. The following draws on a number of sources: Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, pp. 73–75; Etemad,
Possession
, pp. 264f. (Tab. 26); J. Fisch,
Geschichte Südafrikas
, p. 405; M. Daly,
Cambridge History of Egypt,
vol. 2, p. 7.

141
. Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, pp. 74f.

142
. Iliffe,
Tanganyika
, pp. 138–40.

143
. This is the estimate in Zeleza,
Economic History of Africa
, p. 75.

144
. Amsden,
Rise of “the Rest,”
p. 21 (Tab. 1.11).

145
. Bade,
Migration in European History
, p. 124.

146
. For a more detailed account, see Grabbe,
Flut
, pp. 333–64.

147
. Hoerder,
Cultures in Contact
, p. 331.

148
. Grabbe,
Flut
, p. 94 (Tab. 13).

149
. See the graph in Michael R. Haines, “The White Population of the United States, 1790–1920,” in: M. R. Haines and Steckel,
Population History
, pp. 305–69, at 345 (Fig. 8.1.).

150
. Ibid., p. 346 (Tab. 8.5.).

151
. Nugent,
Crossings
, p. 43 (Tab. 9).

152
. Ibid., pp. 29f.

153
. Ibid., p. 30 (Tab. 8).

154
. Marvin McInnis, “The Population of Canada in the Nineteenth Century,” in: M. R. Haines and Steckel,
Population History
, pp.17, 422.

155
. Nugent,
Crossings
, pp. 137f., 112.

156
. See a study that considers both sides of the Atlantic: Moya,
Cousins
.

157
. Rosselli,
Opera Business
.

158
. Rock,
Argentina
, pp. 133–43.

159
. Bernand,
Buenos Aires
, pp. 194f.

160
. Galloway,
Sugar Cane Industry
, p. 132.

161
. Kale,
Fragments of Empire
, p. 1.

162
. On passenger densities, see Northrup,
Indentured Labour
, p. 85.

163
. Ibid., p. 9.

164
. Ibid., p. 149 (Tab. 6.1); David Northrup,“Migration from Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific,” in Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3, pp. 88–100, at 96.

165
. Calculated from Northrup,
Indentured Labour
, pp. 156f. (Tab. A.1).

166
. The following draws on: Tinker,
New System of Slavery
; Northrup,
Indentured Labour
, pp. 59–70; A.J.H. Latham, “Southeast Asia: A Preliminary Survey, 1800–1914,” in Glazier and Rosa,
Migration
, pp. 11–29.

167
. P. C. Emmer, “The Meek Hindu: The Recruitment of Indian Indentured Labourers for Service Overseas, 1870–1916,” in idem,
Colonialism and Migration
, pp. 187–207.

168
. On the early criticisms see Kale,
Fragments of Empire
, pp. 28–37.

169
. Philip D. Curtin, “Africa and Global Patterns of Migration,” in Wang Gungwu,
Global History
, pp. 63–94, at 83.

170
. Tinker,
New System of Slavery
, p. 334.

171
. Richardson,
Chinese Mine Labour
, pp. 177f. and passim.

172
. G. William Skinner, “Creolized Chinese Societies in Southeast Asia,” in: Reid,
Sojourners
, pp. 51–93, at 52.

173
. Good introductions to the history of the emigration are Wang Gungwu,
The Chinese Overseas
, and Kuhn,
Chinese among Others
.

174
. Skinner,
Chinese Society
, pp. 30f., 73.

175
. Wang Sing-wu,
Chinese Emigration
, pp. 50–53, quotation on p. 62.

176
. Irick,
Coolie Trade
, p. 183.

177
. On coolie protection policies in the late Qing period, see Yen Ching-hwang,
Coolies
.

178
. David Northrup, “Migration from Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific,” in: Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3, pp. 88–100, at 94 (table 5.3).

179
. For China, see Hunt,
Special Relationship,
p. 64; for Europe: Baines,
Migration
, p. 126.

180
. Gyory,
Closing the Gate
, p. 67.

181
. See in general McKeown,
Chinese Migrant Networks
.

182
. Amrith,
Migration and Diaspora
, p. 32. Many of the often-cited data for South Asia are from Kingley Davis,
The Population of India and Pakistan
, Princeton, NJ 1952.

183
. McKeown,
Global Migration
, p. 157; so also McKeown,
Melancholy Order
, pp. 43–65.

184
. Susan Naquin and Yü Chün-fang, “Introduction: Pilgrimage in China,” in idem,
Pilgrims
, pp. 19f.

185
. Peters,
The Hajj
, mainly a rich collection of translated sources; Faroqhi,
Herrscher über Mekka
, pp. 223 ff., 252 (table 7); Mary Byrne McDonnell, “Patterns of Muslim Pilgrimage from Malaysia, 1885–1985,” in: Eickelman,
Muslim Travellers
, pp. 111–30, at 115.

186
. Umar Al-Naqar,
Pilgrimage Tradition
, pp. 82 ff.

187
. Hayami,
Population
, p. 37.

188
. For the US: Bodnar,
The Transplanted
, pp. 117–43.

189
. Hochstadt,
Mobility
, p. 218.

190
. This was not only relevant for relatively poor countries like Japan and China, but also for Britain. See Magee and Thompson:
Empire and Globalisation
, pp. 97–105.

191
. T. M. Devine,
To the Ends of the Earth
, p. 31.

192
. E. Richards,
Poor People
, pp. 251–53; R. F. Haines,
Emigration
.

CHAPTER V: Living Standards

    1
. W. Reinhard,
Lebensformen
, p. 453. Cf. Michael Argyle, “Subjective Well-Being,” in Offer,
In Pursuit
, pp. 18–45, an attempt to develop parameters of happiness.

    2
. On various debates surrounding the standard of living, cf. Carole Shammas, “Standard of Living, Consumption, and Political Economy over the Past 500 Years,” in Trentmann,
Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption
, pp. 211–26.

    3
. Bengtsson et al.,
Life under Pressure
, p. 33.

    4
. For a summary see Van Zanden,
Wages
, pp. 191–93.

    5
. The estimates are slightly different in G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, pp. 319f., 324f.

    6
. Bourguignon and Morrison,
Inequality
, pp. 731, 743.

    7
. Cf. the independent estimates in ibid., p. 728.

    8
. See, on the basis of Maddison: Easterlin,
Worldwide Standard of Living
, p. 10.

    9
. Lavely and Wong.
Malthusian Narrative
, p. 723.

  10
. Maddison,
World Economy
, p. 30 (tab. 1–5a); cf. R. W. Fogel,
Escape
, p. 2 (tab. 1–1).

  11
. See Hanley,
Everyday Things
, and the comparison between Japan and England in Macfarlane,
Savage Wars of Peace
.

  12
. Imhof,
Lebenszeit
, p. 63. Imhof's wide-ranging researches are fundamental for this topic.

  13
. G. Clark,
Farewell to Alms
, pp. 45, 95f.

  14
. R. W. Fogel,
Escape
, pp. 2f., 8.

  15
. See, for example, Szreter and Mooney,
Urbanization
, pp. 108f.

  16
. Hans-Joachim Voth, “Living Standards and the Urban Environment,” in: Floud and Johnson,
Cambridge Economic History of Britain
, vol. 1, pp. 268–94, at 293.

  17
. Wehler,
Gesellschaftsgeschichte
, vol. 2, pp. 281–96.

  18
. R. W. Fogel,
Escape
, pp. 11, 18, 35f., 38, 40.

  19
. Riley,
Rising Life Expectancy
, p. 34; Imhof,
Lebenszeit
, p. 84.

  20
. Cameron Campbell, “Mortality Change and the Epidemological Transition in Beijing, 1644–1990,” in: Liu Ts'ui-jung et al.,
Asian Population History
, pp. 221–47, at 222f., 243. Today, life expectancy in the People's Republic is about 5 years lower than in the richest countries of the West.

  21
. Riley,
Rising Life Expectancy
, p. 39.

  22
. There is a good description in C. King,
Black Sea
, pp. 168–72.

  23
. D. Fraser,
Evolution
, pp. 66–78. Though focused on the United States, the best
general
introduction is Melosi,
The Sanitary City
.

  24
. Burrows and Wallace,
Gotham
, pp. 625–27.

  25
. R. Porter,
London
, pp. 265f.

  26
. Münch,
Stadthygiene
, pp. 128f., 132–36, 191.

  27
. Weintraub,
Uncrowned King
, pp. 430, 435. The real cause of death was probably stomach cancer; the rumors in question were the result of the official diagnosis.

  28
. R. Porter,
London
, pp. 263f.; Inwood,
London
, pp. 433f.; Halliday,
Great Stink
, pp. 84, 91–99. A history of the city as a history of smells, taking Cairo as its main example, is Fahmy,
Olfactory Tale
.

  29
. Verena Winiwarter emphasizes the important of cultural perceptions of dirt, in “Where Did All the Waters Go? The Introduction of Sewage Systems in Urban Settlements,” in: Bernhardt,
Environmental Problems
, pp. 106–19.

  30
. Halliday,
Great Stink
, p. 103.

  31
. Wedewer,
Reise nach dem Orient
, p. 216; on Istanbul's water supply before the beginning of modernization, see Kreiser,
Istanbul
, pp. 58–64, and on other Middle Eastern cities, Raymond,
Grandes villes arabes
, pp. 155–67.

  32
. Dossal,
Imperial Designs
, p. 116.

  33
. Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, p. 167.

  34
. MacPherson,
Wilderness
, pp. 116 f., 120; Dikötter,
Exotic Commodities
, p. 145.

  35
. A. Hardy,
Health and Medicine in Britain
, pp. 12f.

  36
. Daunton,
Progress
, p. 439.

  37
. D. C. North,
Understanding
, p. 97, fig. 7.10.; Richard H. Steckel and Roderick Floud, “Conclusions,” in: idem,
Health
, pp. 423–49, at 430f., figures p. 424 (Tab. 11.1). The retrospective construction of a Human Development Index for the United States points to stagnation between 1830 und 1860, followed by a continuous rise.

  38
. Steckel and Roderick Floud,
Health
, p. 436.

  39
. Vögele,
Sozialgeschichte
, pp. 84, 87 ff.; Arnold,
Colonizing the Body
, p. 167; Harrison,
Public Health
, pp. 99ff.

  40
. Vögele,
Urban Mortality Change
, p. 213.

  41
. Labisch,
Homo Hygienicus
, p. 134.

  42
. G. Rosen,
History of Public Health
, pp. 147–51.

  43
. Huerkamp,
Aufstieg der Ärzte
, pp. 177ff.

  44
. Witzler,
Großstadt und Hygiene
, pp. 131–38.

  45
. Higman,
Slave Populations
, pp. 262–64, 271f., 328, 341.

  46
. Riley,
Rising Life Expectancy
, pp. 21–24.

  47
. See Dormandy,
White Death
, a rather anecdotal treatment of the subject; and, above all, D. S. Barnes,
Making
.

  48
. A sparkling account may be found in Hays,
Burdens of Disease
, pp. 168–71.

  49
. Kiple,
Human Disease
, p. 403

  50
. Johnston,
Modern Epidemic
, pp. 70f., 73, 90, 135ff., 305–8 (statistics).

  51
. S. Watts,
Epidemics
, p. 25.

  52
. Barry,
Influenza
, pp. 398, 450.

  53
. Kiple,
Human Disease
, p. 1012.

  54
. Kuhnke,
Lives at Risk
, pp. 113–15.

  55
. R. Porter,
Greatest Benefit
, p. 420.

  56
. A good overview is Glynn and Glynn,
Smallpox
, pp. 115–29.