The Transformation of the World (212 page)

131
. On the aspect of economic integration, which I will pass over here, see Woolf,
Napoleon's Integration of Europe
, pp. 133–56.

132
. On the French colonial empire in general, see Bouche,
Histoire de la colonisation française
; J. Meyer et al.,
Histoire de la France coloniale
; Aldrich,
Greater France
; Liauzu et al.,
Colonisation
; Wesseling,
European Colonial Empires
, which displays the author's excellent knowledge of France.

133
. Etemad,
Possessing the World
, pp. 220–25 (Appendices C and D). See also
chapter 4
, above.

134
. Ruedy,
Modern Algeria
, pp. 60, 62, 66; Danziger,
Abd al-Qadir
, pp. 180–205. Abd al-Qadir was not a Westernizer, however: ibid., p. 200.

135
. Ruedy,
Modern Algeria
, p. 69 (table 3.1).

136
. The standard account of policy toward the Muslims in Algeria is Ageron,
History of Modern Algeria
, pp. 47–81.

137
. See Rivet,
Le Maroc
.

138
. The comparison is very interesting in Lustick,
State-Building Failure
.

139
. Brocheux and Hémery,
Indochina
, pp. 138f.

140
. Ibid., pp. 165–73.

141
. Wesseling,
European Colonial Empires
, p. 127. Good on French colonial ideology is Aldrich,
Greater France
, pp. 89–111.

142
. Wesseling,
Divide and Rule
, pp. 92ff.

143
. The standard history of the Congo is now Vanthemsche,
La Belgique et le Congo
. On the crimes in the Congo, see also Ewans,
European
Atrocity
.

144
. H. L.Wesseling, “The Strange Case of Dutch Imperialism,” in idem,
Imperialism and Colonialism
, pp. 73–86, here 77.

145
. Ricklefs,
Modern Indonesia
, pp. 176–79.

146
. Everything in the Netherlands that can be called imperialist appears in Kuitenbrouwer,
The Netherlands
.

147
. Wesseling,
European Colonial Empires
, p. 141.

148
. See Gründer,
Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien
, pp. 163–66.

149
. Gouda,
Dutch Culture Overseas
, p. 45.

150
. Van Zanden and Marks,
Economic History of Indonesia
, pp. 46–72.

151
. Booth,
Indonesian Economy
, pp. 149–54, 160; v.d. Doel,
Het Rijk van Insulinde
, pp. 157–66.

152
. Booth,
Indonesian Economy
, p. 328.

153
. Kent,
Soul of the North
, pp. 368f.

154
. See Parsons,
King Khama
, pp. 201ff.; Rotberg,
The Founder
, pp. 486f.

155
. Tarling,
Imperialism
, pp. 55–62; Kaur,
Economic Change
.

156
. Quoted from Rotberg,
The Founder
, p. 290.

157
. See Shula Marks, “Southern and Central Africa, 1886–1910,” in: Fage and Oliver,
Cambridge History of Africa
, vol. 6, pp. 422–92, here 444–54; Rotberg,
The Founder
, chs. 12–13.

158
. See Breman,
Taming the Coolie Beast
.

159
. Matsusaka,
Japanese Manchuria
, pp. 126–39.

160
. C. Marx,
Geschichte Afrikas
, p. 60.

161
. Ibid., pp. 72f.

162
. R. Reid,
Ganda
, p. 362.

163
. M. Last, “The Sokoto Caliphate and Borno,” in Ajayi,
General History of Africa
, pp. 555–99, here 568f.

164
. The following draws on Hassan Amed Ibrahim, “The Egyptian Empire, 1805–1885,” in Daly,
Cambridge History of Egypt
, vol. 2, pp. 198–216; and Fahmy,
All the Pasha's Men
, pp. 38–75.

165
. Rich,
Great Power Diplomacy
, pp. 69–74.

166
. F. Robinson,
Muslim Societies
, p. 170; see also the good brief account of the Mahdi state on pp. 169–81.

167
. Grewal,
Sikhs
, pp. 99–128, who speaks of a “Sikh empire.”

168
. The following draws on Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, pp. 4–23.

169
. J. Meyer et al.,
Histoire de la France coloniale
, pp. 209–13.

170
. Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, p. 17.

171
. Ibid., p. 23.

172
. See the contrary arguments of Klaus Schwabe and Tony Smith, often repeated by other authors until today, in Mommsen and Osterhammel,
Imperialism and After
.

173
. Meinig,
Shaping of America
, vol. 2, p. 170.

174
. See, e.g., Jacobson,
Whiteness of a Different Color
.

175
. The standard work, already slightly dated, is Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3, vol. 5 (on the state of research); good overviews are B. Porter,
Lion's Share
; Hyam,
Britain's Imperial Century
; Darwin,
Empire Project
; Darwin,
Unfinished Empire
.

176
. See Fry,
Scottish Empire
; S. Howe,
Ireland
, which also discusses the effects down to the present day.

177
. A thesis first put forward in Colley,
Britons
.

178
. John Stuart Mill, “A Few Words on Non-Intervention [1859],” in Mill,
Collected Works
, vol. 21, pp. 109–24.

179
. Schumpeter,
Economics and Sociology of Capitalism
, esp. p. 196.

180
. H. V. Bowen,
British Conceptions
, p. 1.

181
. Marshall,
Making
, p. 228; also H. V. Bowen,
Business of Empire
.

182
. A fine case study of the smaller “expatriate communities,” which by 1911 added up to some 3,500 persons, is Butcher,
The British in Malaya
, figure from p. 30. On Kenya, see D. Kennedy,
Islands of White
.

183
. A broad perspective from a New Zealand point of view: Pocock,
Discovery
, esp. pp. 181–98.

184
. N.A.M. Rodger,
Command of the Sea
, p. 579; Daunton,
Progress
, pp. 518–20.

185
. See the maps in P. M. Kennedy,
British Naval Mastery
, p. 207, and A. Porter,
Atlas
, pp. 146f. (with coaling stations).

186
. P. M. Kennedy,
British Naval Mastery
, p. 151.

187
. Kolff,
Naukar
on the formation of the Indian Army; Metcalf,
Imperial Connections
, pp. 68–101 on its deployment outside India.

188
. On the whole range of possibilities in Southeast Asia, see Webster,
Gentlemen Capitalists
.

189
. On the domestic political background, see Hilton,
A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?
, pp. 543–58; important is A. Howe,
Free Trade
.

190
. Darwin,
Imperialism
, pp. 627f. The climax came with Palmerston's speech of June 25, 1850.

191
. Gallagher and Robinson [1953], in Louis,
Imperialism
, pp. 53–72.

192
. Frank Trentmann, “Civil Society, Commerce, and the ‘Citizen-Consumer': Popular Meanings of Free Trade in Modern Britain,” in idem,
Paradoxes
, pp. 306–31; and, in greater detail, idem,
Free Trade Nation
.

193
. Patrick K. O'Brien, “The Pax Britannica and American Hegemony: Precedent, Antecedent or Just Another History?” in O'Brien and Clesse,
Two Hegemonies
, pp. 3–64, esp. 13f., 16f., 21.

194
. L. E. Davis and Huttenback,
Mammon
.

195
. Offer,
British Empire
, p. 228. Cf. P. M. Kennedy,
Costs and Benefits
.

196
. Cannadine,
Orientalism
.

197
. Offer,
First World War
, pp. 368ff.

198
. Gilmour,
Curzon
, pp. 274–76, 287–90; Verrier,
Younghusband
, pp. 179ff.

199
. Friedberg,
Weary Titan
.

200
. Cain and Hopkins,
British Imperialism
, chs. 3–4; on the City and its personnel, see Kynaston,
City
.

201
. Neff,
War
, p. 217. This work develops a whole typology of international intervention in the nineteenth century (pp. 215–49).

202
. Perkins,
Modern Tunisia
, p. 19; Hsü,
Modern China
, pp. 205–12; Wyatt,
Thailand
, pp. 184f.

203
. Key texts are Fisher,
Indirect Rule in India
and, on Egypt, Owen,
Lord Cromer
, chs. 10–16.

204
. This is argued in Cannadine,
Orientalism
.

205
. Belich,
A Cultural History of Economics?
, p. 119.

206
. The standard work remains Semmel,
Jamaican Blood
; see also C. Hall,
Civilising Subjects
, pp. 23–27 and passim.

207
. See the collection of material (varying greatly in quality from region to region): Ferro,
Le livre noir
.

208
. See also the considerations in Hildebrand,
No Intervention
, pp. 27f.

209
. Following Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, this has also been termed “informal empire.” On the definition, see Jürgen Osterhammel, “Britain and China 1842–1914,” in Louis,
Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3, pp. 146–69, esp. 148f.

210
. Georges Balandier, Albert Memmi, and others. On these classical interpretations, see Young,
Postcolonialism
.

211
. Trotha,
Koloniale Herrschaft
, pp. 37ff.

212
. See also
chapter 16
, below.

213
. Zastoupil and Moir,
Great Indian Education Debate
.

214
. T. R. Metcalf,
Ideologies of the Raj
, pp. 66ff.; Forsyth,
Peoples of Siberia
, pp. 156f.

215
. Lorcin,
Imperial Identities
.

216
. There is a good brief account of the history of resistance in Abernethy,
Global Dominance
, pp. 254ff.

217
. Aldrich,
Greater France
, p. 212.

218
. Maurice Duverger, “Le concept d'empire,” in idem,
Le concept d'empire
, pp. 5–24, at 11.

219
. See the study of legal history: Chanock,
Law
, p. 219.

220
. See Manela,
Wilsonian Moment
.

221
. See the detailed discussion in Bayly,
Birth of the Modern World
, ch. 6.

222
. This is another of the “dilemmas of empire” uncovered in D. Lieven,
Empire
.

223
. There are fine case studies for the Ottoman Empire in Hanssen et al.,
Empire in the City
.

CHAPTER IX: International Orders, Wars, Transnational Movements

    1
. H. M. Scott,
Birth
convincingly situates the beginnings of the European system in the 1760s (pp. 121, 143ff.). His book should be read in comparison with Bois,
De la paix des rois
. On the Seven Years'War as a world war see Füssel,
Der Siebenjährige Krieg
. In a sense, already the Nine Years' War (1688–97) might be called a “world war.”

    2
. The classical distinctions derive from Bull,
Anarchical Society
, pp. 8ff. More complex and historically more specific are the considerations in Buzan and Little,
International Systems
, pp. 90ff. and passim.

    3
. Dülffer,
Regeln
, p. 300.

    4
. Baumgart,
Europäisches Konzert
, p. 343.

    5
. Wawro,
Warfare
, pp. 55–57; Figes,
Crimea
, pp. 117–19, 178–80.

    6
. See the wide panorama in Geyer and Bright,
Global Violence
.

    7
. Schroeder,
Transformation
, and a collection of his essays: Schroeder,
Systems, Stability and Statecraft
. Another key text is Dülffer et al.,
Vermiedene Kriege
, one of the most important works on international relations in the nineteenth century.

    8
. This is done persuasively in F. R. Bridge, “Transformations of the European States-System, 1856–1914,” in: Krüger and Schroeder,
Transformation
, pp. 255–72.

    9
. C. I. Hamilton,
Anglo-French Naval Rivalry
, pp. 273–74.

  10
. Mommsen,
Bürgerstolz
, p. 305.

  11
. Mahan's famous book is titled
The Influence of Seapower upon History 1660–1783
.

  12
. For a comparative overview of armaments in the 1840–1914 period, wider than its title would suggest, see R. Hobson,
Imperialism at Sea
.

  13
. Eberhard Kolb, “Stabilisierung ohne Konsolidierung? Zur Konfiguration des europäischen Mächtesystems 1871–1914,” in: Krüger,
Das europäische Staatensystem
, pp. 188–95, at 192.

  14
. I. Clark,
Hierarchy of States
, p. 133.

  15
. D. Lieven,
Russia
, pp. 40f.

  16
. Mommsen,
Großmachtstellung
, p. 69.