The Transformation of the World (214 page)

117
. Georgeon,
Abdulhamid II
, pp. 31–35.

118
. D. Wright,
The Persians amongst the English
is a fine study of intercultural diplomacy: see pp. 121–40 on the shah's two visits, in 1873 and 1889.

119
. Keene,
Emperor of Japan
, p. 308.

120
. D.G.E. Hall,
South-East Asia
, pp. 629f.

121
. Mawer,
Ahab's Trade
, pp. 97f.

122
. Grewe,
Epochen
, p. 554.

123
. Jelavich,
Russia's Balkan Entanglements
, p. 172.

124
. This mood is well captured in a journalistic book: Traxler,
1898
.

125
. Dülffer et al.,
Vermiedene Kriege
, pp. 615–39; Mommsen,
Großmachtstellung
, pp. 213–27.

126
. Nikki R. Keddie, “Iran under the Later Qajars, 1848–1922,” in Avery et al.,
Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 7, pp. 174–212, at 195f.; Keddie,
Qajar Iran
, pp. 37–39.

127
. Quoted from Osterhammel,
China
, p. 222. On the boycott see Wang Guanhua,
In Search of Justice
.

128
. Quataert,
Social Disintegration
, pp. 121–45.

129
. Lauren,
Power and Prejudice
, pp. 57, 76–101; cf. the excellent study: Shimazu,
Japan, Race and Equality
.

130
. John Boli and George M. Thomas, “INGOs and the Organization of World Culture,” in idem,
Constructing World Culture
, pp. 13–49, at 23 (Fig. 1.1).

131
. Moorehead,
Dunant's Dream
p. 125; cf. Riesenberger,
Für Humanität
, pp. 35f.

132
. Chi Zihua,
Hongshizi yu jindai Zhongguo
, pp. 52ff.

133
. F.S.L. Lyons,
Internationalism
, p. 263—an unsurpassed standard work.

134
. See above all the older literature: Braunthal,
History of the International
, vol. 1; Joll,
Second International
.

135
. M. B. Jansen,
Making
, p. 491.

136
. Bock,
Women
, p. 118.

137
. McClain,
Japan
, pp. 381f.

138
. See the case study for Egypt: Badran,
Feminists
, pp. 47–51.

139
. Rupp,
Worlds of Women
, pp. 15–21. Karen Offen sees the years from 1878 to 1890 as a first great period of the internationalization of feminism:
European Feminisms
, pp. 150ff.

140
. B. S. Anderson,
Joyous Greetings
, pp. 24f., 204f.

141
. See McFadden,
Golden Cables
, esp. apps. A–F.

142
. On India: Burton,
Burdens of History
, chs. 4–5.

143
. They could not, however, avoid sometimes taking a “national” position against aggressors: see Grossi,
Le pacifisme européen
, pp. 219ff. (the best overall account).

144
. Ceadel,
Origins of War Prevention
.

145
. S. E. Cooper,
Patriotic Pacifism
, pp. 219f.

146
. Translation: K'ang Yu-wei,
One-world Philosophy
; an authoritative reference is Hsiao Kung-chuan,
A Modern China
, pp. 456ff.

147
. Unsurpassed on the Hague Conferences is Dülffer,
Regeln
. For a more optimistic interpretation of them as a symbolic step forward, see I. Clark,
International Legitimacy
, pp. 61–82.

148
. See the important collection M. H. Geyer and Paulmann,
Mechanics
.

149
. Vec,
Recht und Normierung
, p. 379.

150
. See
chapter 2
, above.

151
. Some of these processes are discussed in Martin H. Geyer, “One Language for the World,” in M. H. Geyer and Paulmann,
Mechanics
, pp. 55–92. But the best overview is Murphy,
International Organization
, pp. 46–118.

152
. Forster,
Esperanto Movement
, p. 22 (Tab. 3).

153
. D. C. Young,
Modern Olympics
, pp. 68–70, 85.

154
. On football: Goldblatt,
The Ball Is Round
, pp. 85–170.

155
. Quoted from Herren,
Hintertüren zur Macht
, p. 1.

156
. See the list in Murphy,
International Organization
, pp. 47f.

157
. Ibid., pp. 57–59.

CHAPTER X: Revolutions

    1
. Arendt,
On Revolution
, p. 11.

    2
. T. Paine,
Common Sense
, p. 63.

    3
. Arendt,
On Revolution
, p. 37.

    4
. “Great revolutions” are those that (a) led to the consolidation of a revolutionary state power
and
(b) had a program that at least for a time commanded worldwide attention.

    5
. E. Zimmermann,
Political Violence
, p. 298, slightly simplified.

    6
. Law,
Oyo Empire
, pp. 245ff.

    7
. C. Tilly,
European Revolutions
, p. 243 (Tab. 7.1, curiously lacking Germany).

    8
. Kimmel,
Revolution
, p. 6.

    9
. See the striking theoretical elaboration in Moore,
Social Origins
, pp. 433–52, and on the Japanese case pp. 228ff.

  10
. Beasley,
Meiji Restoration
; Jansen,
Modern Japan
, pp. 333–70, and the primary sources in Tsunoda et al.,
Sources of Japanese Tradition
, vol. 2. See also the interpretation of the Meiji Renewal as a revolution or “revolutionary restoration” in Eisenstadt,
Japanese Civilization
, pp. 264–77.

  11
. See
chapter 11
, below.

  12
. Dutton,
Tây Son Uprising
.

  13
. Kalyvas,
Logic of Violence
, p. 5.

  14
. Later there were a second (1846–49) and a third (1870–75) Carlist war.

  15
. Carr,
Spain
, pp. 184–95.

  16
. Labourdette,
Portugal
, pp. 522–27.

  17
. Farah,
Interventionism
, pp. 695f.

  18
. Tutino,
Revolution in Mexican Independence
.

  19
. McClain,
Japan
, pp. 123f., 193f.

  20
. Edmund Burke III, “Changing Patterns of Peasant Protest in the Middle East, 1750–1950,” in Kazemi and Waterbury,
Peasants and Politics
, pp. 24–37, at 30.

  21
. See
chapter 11
, below.

  22
. Schölch,
Egypt for the Egyptians!
; J. A. Cole,
Colonialism
.

  23
. Jacob Burckhardt, “Die geschichtlichen Krisen,” in idem,
Werke
, vol. 10, p. 463.

  24
. See, e.g., Goldstone,
Revolution and Rebellion
.

  25
. See
chapter 2
, above.

  26
. Early opposition to the internally focused view came from within sociology: see Skocpol,
States
, one of the classics of the comparative history of revolutions.

  27
. Schulin,
Französische Revolution
, p. 37.

  28
. On Sorel, see Pelzer,
Revolution und Klio
, pp. 120–41.

  29
. Mainly programmatic: Bender,
Rethinking American History
.

  30
. Pioniers in this respect were Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy,
Die europäischen Revolutionen
(Jena 1931) and Crane Brinton,
The Anatomy of Revolution
(New York 1938).

  31
. Godechot,
France
; Palmer,
Age
.

  32
. Very ably so Klooster,
Revolutions in the Atlantic World
, and, assembling a galaxy of first-rate authors, Armitage and Subrahmanyam,
Age of Revolutions
. Very important is also Belaubre et al.,
Napoleon's Atlantic
.

  33
. Bailyn,
Atlantic History
, pp. 21–40.

  34
. Kossok,
Ausgewählte Schriften
, esp. vol. 2.

  35
. A good introduction is Countryman,
American Revolution
, and the work by one of the most influential interpreters: Wood,
American Revolution
. On historians' controversies surrounding the revolution see A. F. Young and Nobles,
Whose American Revolution Was It?
; and Woody Holton, “American Revolution and Early Republic,” in: Foner and McGirr,
American History Now
, pp. 24–51.

  36
. That this was not only a tactical error on London's part but reflected a different conception of empire from that of the colonists, is well brought out in Gould,
Persistence of Empire
, pp. 110–36.

  37
. Wood,
Radicalism
, p. 109.

  38
. Langford,
A Polite and Commercial People
, pp. 550f.

  39
. Foster,
Modern Ireland
, p. 280.

  40
. Ibid., p. 281.

  41
. Texts in Hampsher-Monk,
Impact
.

  42
. Mark Philp, “Revolution,” in McCalman,
Romantic Age
, pp. 17–26.

  43
. Godechot,
France
, pp. 54f.

  44
. Schama,
Patriots
, pp. 120–31.

  45
. A good discussion of the explanatory power of the interpretations current today is Spang,
Paradigms
; see also P. R. Campbell,
Origins
.

  46
. A fundamental theoretical contribution is Skocpol,
States
.

  47
. See esp. Whiteman,
Reform
; and the earlier overview, less well “focused” and resting on secondary literature, in B. Stone,
Reinterpreting the French Revolution
; on transatlantic interaction during the 1780s see also Andress,
1789
.

  48
. W. Doyle,
French Revolution
, p. 66; and on detailed points Whiteman,
Reform
, pp. 43ff.

  49
. My favourite history of the French Revolution remains, against huge competition, W. Doyle,
French Revolution
. The unity of the 1789–1815 period is brought out well in Sutherland,
French Revolution and Empire
. A good approach to the Revolution is through its exciting historiography, see the collection on major historians: Pelzer,
Revolution und Klio
.

  50
. For an analytical sketch cf. F. W. Knight,
Haitian Revolution
; the standard work is Dubois,
Avengers
, another major study Popkin,
You Are All Free
.

  51
. Figures from Dubois,
Avengers
, p. 30.

  52
. On the “market revolution,” see Sean Wilentz, “Society, Politics and the Market Revolution, 1815–1848,” in: Foner,
New American History
, pp. 61–64 and esp. 62–70.

  53
. Dubois,
Avengers
, p. 78.

  54
. Ibid., p. 125.

  55
. See Geggus,
Slavery
for an extensive account of this important episode in the Atlantic war.

  56
. Fox-Genovese and Genovese,
Mind of the Masterclass
, p. 38.

  57
. This is especially impressive in Dubois,
Colony of Citizens
, a study mainly of Guadeloupe.

  58
. Davis,
Problem of Slavery
, p. 3.

  59
. Dubois,
Colony of Citizens
, pp. 7, 171ff.

  60
. See the case studies in Klaits and Haltzel,
Global Ramifications
.

  61
. On the French Revolution as a “catalyst of political cultures in Europe,” see Reichardt,
Blut der Freiheit
, pp. 257–334.

  62
. Förster,
Die mächtigen Diener
.

  63
. See Keddie,
Iran
, pp. 233–49; Shaw,
Between Old and New
; Laurens,
L'Expédition d'Égypte
, esp. pp. 467–73.

  64
. For an overview of the most important interpretations, see Uribe,
Enigma
.

  65
. A model of its kind is C. F. Walker,
Smoldering Ashes
, esp. chs. 4–5.

  66
. The standard account remains J. Lynch
, Spanish-American Revolutions
, now to be supplemented with Rinke,
Las revoluciones en América Latina
. Of new interpretations especially notable: Adelman,
Sovereignty
, esp. chs. 5, 7; on broad historiographical trends see idem, “Independence in Latin America,” in: Moya,
Oxford Handbook of Latin American History
, pp. 153–80. Anna,
Spain and the Loss of America
, focuses on the losing Spanish side.

  67
. Elliott,
Empires
, p. 360.

  68
. Ibid., p. 374.

  69
. Wood,
Benjamin Franklin
.

  70
. Rodríguez,
Independence of Spanish America
, p. 82.

  71
. Graham,
Independence
, pp. 107ff.

  72
. J. Lynch,
Simón Bolívar
is a masterly study.

  73
. For Mexico: Anna,
Fall of the Royal Government
, pp. 225f.

  74
. This is shown in the monumental work Van Young,
Other Rebellion
.