The Transformation of the World (217 page)

107
. W. C. Jones,
Great Qing Code
.

108
. H. G. Brown,
War
, p. 9 and passim.

109
. An excellent survey is still G. E. Aylmer, “Bureaucracy,” in Burke,
Companion Volume
, pp. 164–200.

110
. Krauss,
Herrschaftspraxis
, p. 240 and passim.

111
. Berend,
History Derailed
, pp. 188f., 259. Not by chance was the Habsburg Monarchy known, at least until 1859, as the “China of Europe”: Langewiesche,
Liberalism in Germany
, p. 63.

112
. European “rationalization” paths are well characterized in Breuer,
Der Staat
, pp. 175–89.

113
. The legitimacy of taxation is an important but frequently overlooked element in the efficiency of the state. See Daunton,
Trusting Leviathan
.

114
. China: Watt,
District Magistrate
; India: Gilmour,
Ruling Caste
, pp. 89–104.

115
. Gilmour,
Ruling Caste
, p. 43.

116
. Misra,
Bureaucracy in India
, pp. 299–308.

117
. Guy,
Qing Governors
; R. J. Smith,
China's Cultural Heritage
, pp. 55–67; and Hucker,
Dictionary
, pp. 83–96. On the Chinese state's limited scope for action in the early nineteenth century (with particular reference to the opium bans), see Bello,
Opium
.

118
. For a critique of many clichés concerning Chinese corruption, see Reed,
Talons and Teeth
, pp. 18–25.

119
. Elman,
Civil Examinations
, pp. 569ff.

120
. Osterhammel,
China
, pp. 163f.; account is taken of more recent literature in Eberhard-Bréard,
Robert Hart
.

121
. Hwang,
Beyond Birth
, p. 334.

122
. Woodside,
Lost Modernities
, p. 3: a highly stimulating interpretation.

123
. Findley,
Ottoman Civil Officialdom
, p. 292 and passim.

124
. Findley,
Turks
, p. 161.

125
. Silberman,
Cages of Reason
, p. 180.

126
. Constitution of the Japanese Empire, Preamble and Paragraph 1 (Clause 3).

127
. Wakabayashi,
Anti-Foreignism
; see the translation there of Aizawa's Nine Theses (pp. 147–277).

128
. Wolfgang Schwentker, “Staatliche Ordnungen und Staatstheorien im neuzeitlichen Japan,” in W. Reinhard,
Verstaatlichung der Welt?
, pp. 113–31, at 126f.

129
. A key article here is Lutz Raphael, “L'État dans les villages: Administration et politique dans les sociétés rurales allemandes, françaises et italiennes de l'époque napoléonienne à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale,” in Mayaud and Raphael,
Histoire de l'Europe rurale contemporaine
, pp. 249–81.

130
. Baxter,
Meiji Unification
is a fine study of Japan in the 1870s. The pressures stemming from grassroots protest and a precarious external policy differentiate the Japanese from the German case. See Yoda,
Foundations of Japan's Modernization
, pp. 72f.

131
. Baxter,
Meiji Unification
, pp. 53–92.

132
. See Breuer,
Der Staat
. Cf. M. Mann,
Sources of Social Power
, vol. 2, pp. 444–75.

133
. Bensel,
Yankee Leviathan
, p. 367.

134
. M. Mann,
Sources of Social Power,
vol. 2, p. 472.

135
. Wunder,
Bürokratie
, pp. 72f.

136
. Ullmann,
Steuerstaat
, pp. 56ff.

137
. M. Mann,
Sources of Social Power
, vol. 2, p. 366 (Tab. 11.3).

138
. Raphael,
Recht und Ordnung
, p. 123.

139
. Daunton,
Progress
, p. 519.

140
. Ali,
Punjab
, pp.109ff.; Heathcote,
Military in British India
, pp. 126f. On the formation of the “garrison state” in India, see Peers,
Mars
.

141
. See the studies in Frevert,
Militär und Gesellschaft
; and Foerster,
Wehrpflicht
.

142
. Frevert,
A Nation in Barracks
, pp. 149ff.

143
. Dietrich Beyrau, “Das Russische Imperium und seine Armee,” in: Frevert,
Militär und Gesellschaft
, pp. 119–42, at 130–33.

144
. Fahmy,
All the Pasha's Men
, esp. pp. 76ff.

145
. Eric J. Zürcher, “The Ottoman Conscription System in Theory and Practice,” in: idem,
Arming the State
, pp. 79–94, esp. 86, 91.

146
. McClain,
Japan
, p. 161.

147
. R. J. Evans,
Rituals of Retribution
, pp. 305–21. In France, though, there were occasional public executions until 1939.

148
. Schrader,
Languages of the Lash
, pp. 49, 144ff.

149
. See the overview: David Bayley, “The Police and Political Development in Europe,” in: C. Tilly,
Formation of National States
, pp. 328–79, esp. 340–60; and, for a comparative study in terms of political sociology, Knöbl,
Polizei
.

150
. Emsley,
Gendarmes and the State
.

151
. Westney,
Imitation
, pp. 40–44, 72f.

152
. Ibid., pp. 94f.

153
. For the example of South India, see Arnold,
Police Power
, pp. 99, 147.

154
. Clive,
Macaulay
, pp. 435–66.

155
. Townshend,
Making the Peace
, pp. 23–29.

156
. J. A. Hobson,
Imperialism
, p. 124.

157
. Monkkonen,
Police
, pp. 42, 46.

158
. See the sketch in Eric H. Monkkonen, “Police Forces,” in: Foner and Garraty,
Reader's Companion
, pp. 847–50.

159
. This is the main theme in Petrow,
Policing Morals
.

160
. Kraus's writings on the subject, which appeared between 1902 and 1907 in
Die Fackel
, are now collected in
Schriften
, vol. 1, Frankfurt a.M., 1987.

161
. A. J. Major,
State and Criminal Tribes
, pp. 657f., 663; see also T. R. Metcalf,
Ideologies of the Raj
, pp. 122–25, and chs. 3–4 on ethnic classification in general.

162
. See, e.g., M. E. Curtin,
Black Prisoners
, pp. 1ff.

163
. Karl-Friedrich Lenz, “Penal Law,” in: W. Röhl,
History of Law in Japan
, pp. 607–26, at 609ff.

164
. Umemori Naoyuki, “Spatial Configuration and Subject Formation: The Establishment of the Modern Penitentiary System in Meiji Japan,” in: Hardacre and Kern,
New Directions
, pp. 734–67, esp. 744–46, 754, 759f.

165
. Dikötter,
Crime
, pp. 56–58; the plans were implemented on a large scale, however, only under the Republic.

166
. Lindert,
Growing Public
, pp. 46f.

167
. Rosanvallon,
L'État en France
, p. 175; Raphael,
Recht und Ordnung
, p. 102; Lindert,
Poor Relief
.

168
. The standard work here is Lindert,
Growing Public
, pp. 171ff.; see also W. Reinhard,
Staatsgewalt
, pp. 460–67.

169
. Eichenhofer,
Geschichte des Sozialstaats
, p. 54.

170
. Comparative data in M. G. Schmidt,
Sozialpolitik
, p. 180 (Tab. 5).

171
. See Rodgers,
Atlantic Crossings
, esp. pp. 209ff. (on social insurance).

172
. Esping-Andersen,
Three Worlds
.

173
. On this whole section, see P. D. Curtin,
World
, pp. 128–91.

174
. See Faroqhi,
Subjects of the Sultan
, p. 19.

175
. There are summaries in all histories of the Ottoman Empire, for instance Findley,
Turkey
, pp. 88–106; Hanioglu,
Brief History
, pp. 72–108. Reforms on a more modest scale took place in Iran, influenced by the Ottoman example: see Bakhash,
Iran
.

176
. See Anastassiadou,
Salonique
; Hanssen,
Beirut
.

177
. Rich,
Age of Nationalism
, pp. 145 ff. draws interesting parallels between the more or less “liberal” reforms occurring at the same time in Britain and Russia.

178
. W. B. Lincoln,
Great Reforms
; Eklof et al.,
Russia's Great Reforms
; Beyrau et al.
Reformen
.

179
. Even Korea, the last East Asian country by far to remain sealed off from the West, embarked on a policy of self-strengthening reform. See Palais,
Politics and Policy
.

180
. W. Reinhard,
Verstaatlichung
.

181
. See the study by Roussillon,
Identité et modernité
.

182
. Paul Wanderwood, “Betterment for Whom? The Reform Period, 1855–1875,” in: M. C. Meyer and Beezley,
Oxford History of Mexico
, pp. 371–96.

183
. Polunov,
Russia
, pp. 123f., 174–89.

184
. Maurus Reinkowski, “The State's Security and the Subjects' Prosperity: Notions of Order in Ottoman Bureaucratic Correspondence,” in: Karateke and Reinkowski,
Legitimizing the Order
, pp. 195–212, at 206; Reinkowski,
Dinge der Ordnung
, pp. 284, 287.

185
. Perkins,
Modern Tunisia
, pp. 14f.

186
. Isabella,
Risorgimento in Exile
.

187
. See Torp,
Herausforderung
.

188
. Trocki,
Opium and Empire
.

CHAPTER XII: Energy and Industry

    1
. W. Hardy,
Idea of the Industrial Revolution
, p. 3.

    2
. Wischermann and Nieberding,
Die institutionelle Revolution
, pp. 17–29.

    3
. See Pollard,
Peaceful Conquest
.

    4
. See Riello and O'Brien,
Future
.

    5
. A model for this kind of analysis is Mokyr,
Enlightened Economy
.

    6
. D. C. North,
Institutions
, pp. 36f.

    7
. See
chapter 5
, above.

    8
. Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
; P.H.H. Vries,
Via Peking
. The question was first posed in the 1950s by Chinese historians.

    9
. See the illuminating thesis in Amsden,
Rise of “the Rest”
, pp. 51ff.

  10
. A famous undogmatic interpretation along these lines is Hobsbawm,
Industry and Empire
, pp. 34–78.

  11
. Schumpeter,
Business Cycles
. Kondratiev was shot in September 1938 in a Moscow prison. His collected works were first published in full in 1998, in the West.

  12
. Polanyi,
Great Transformation
. Influential developments of this approach may be found in the anthropology of peasant communities, and in the theory of a “moral economy” in E. P. Thompson and James C. Scott.

  13
. The final version of the theory is: Rostow,
World Economy
.

  14
. Gerschenkron,
Economic Backwardness
; see the good discussion in Verley,
La Révolution industrielle
, pp. 111–14, 324, 26.

  15
. Bairoch,
Révolution industrielle
; for a later version: Bairoch,
Victoires
, vol. 1.

  16
. Landes,
Unbound Prometheus
—a masterpiece of historical synthesis and still a basic work on the subject.

  17
. D. C. North and Thomas,
Rise
.

  18
. Schumpeter explicitly rejects it, Max Weber mentions it only in passing when he takes issue with technological determinism: see Swedberg,
Max Weber
, pp. 149f.

  19
. Landes,
Wealth and Poverty
.

  20
. Sylla and Toniolo,
Patterns
, tests Gerschenkron's theory country by country, but has little to say about Japan.

  21
. Patrick K. O'Brien: “Introduction,” in idem,
Industrialisation
, vol. 1, p. xliii.

  22
. An exception is Stearns,
Industrial Revolution
.

  23
. According to Easterlin,
Growth Triumphant
, p. 31; E. L. Jones,
Growth Recurring
, p. 13, speaks of “intensive” growth.

  24
. R. C. Allen,
British Industrial Revolution
, p. 80.

  25
. Still a good example of this kind of plurifactorial analysis is Mathias,
First Industrial Nation
.

  26
. Verley,
La Révolution industrielle
, pp. 34–36.

  27
. Allen,
British Industrial Revolution
, p. 15. Findlay and O'Rourke come to similar conclusions in
Power and Plenty
, pp. 330–52, esp. 339–42. A thorough study is Inikori,
Africans
.

  28
. Mokyr,
Gifts of Athena
, in the tracks of the pathbreaking Jacob,
Scientific Culture
; for a later period, see Smil,
Creating the Twentieth Century
; see also Inkster,
Science
, which ranges into world history and is especially interesting on the theme of transfers.