Authors: Juan Williams
5
. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6
. Ibid.
7
. “Guard NAACP Chief,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, Dec. 22, 1951, p. 1.
8
. “NAACP Rallies to Aid Moore,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, Jan. 5, 1952, p. 4.
9
. Buddy Lonsome, “Marshall Reveals …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Feb. 23, 1952, p. 9.
10
.
Baltimore Afro-American
, Dec. 24, 1955.
1
. Thurgood Marshall to Tom Clark, Dec. 27, 1946, FBI file 61-3176-364.
2
. J. E. Hoover to Tom Clark, Jan. 10, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-364.
3
. J. E. Hoover to Walter White, Jan. 13, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-367.
4
. J. E. Hoover to Walter White, Apr. 4, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-367.
5
. Clyde Tolson to L. B. Nichols, Jan. 10, 1948, FBI file 44-1854.
6
. D. M. Ladd to J. E. Hoover, July 21, 1948, FBI file 61-3176-462.
7
. Michael Carter, “Meet the NAACP’s …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 3, 1944, p. 2.
8
. “National Affairs,”
Newsweek
, June 26, 1967, p. 35.
9
. Ibid.
10
. Stephen Spingarn to Mr. Clifford, May 16, 1949, Truman Papers, HST Presidential Library.
11
. Eleanor Roosevelt to Paul Fitzpatrick, Aug. 9, 1949, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Presidential Library.
1
. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Oct. 7, 1948, NAACP papers, LC.
2
. Thurgood Marshall to Robert Silberstein, Oct. 25, 1949, NAACP Papers, LC.
3
. Daniel Byrd to Donald Jones, Apr. 25, 1949, Byrd Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.
4
. James Hicks, “NAACP Boots Reds,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, July 1, 1950, p. 1.
5
. Thurgood Marshall, Draft of “Report on Korea,” undated, NAACP Papers, LC.
6
. V. P. Keay to A. H. Pelmont, Dec. 15, 1950, FBI file 61-3176-573.
7
. Thurgood Marshall, 1951 Diary, NAACP Papers, LC.
8
. D. Clayton James interview with Gen. George Hickman, Douglas MacArthur Library.
9
. Thurgood Marshall, “Report on Korea,” NAACP Papers, LC.
10
. Cliff MacKay, “Courts Martial Hasty,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Feb. 24, 1951, p. 1.
11
. “Mission Accomplished,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, Feb. 24, 1951, p. 22.
1
.
Time
, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 26.
2
. Michael Gillette, “Heman Marion Sweatt: Civil Rights Plaintiff,” in
Black Leaders: Texans for Their Times
(Austin: Texas State Historical Assn., 1981), pp. 163–64.
3
. Heman Sweatt to Walter White, Sept. 3, 1948, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
4
. Heman Sweatt to Walter White, Nov. 8, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC.
5
. A. Maceo Smith interview with Fisk Univ. Black Oral History Program, Nov. 13, 1972.
6
. Author’s interview with James Stewart.
7
. Author’s interview with Constance Baker Motley.
8
. Walter Gellhorn interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
9
. Author’s interview with Ada Lois Sipuel.
10
. Author’s interview with Joe Greenhill.
11
. Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice
(New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 263.
12
. Statement of Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 5, 1947, NAACP Papers, LC.
13
. Robert Carter interview with Caroline Stevens, Dec. 19, 1988.
14
. Statement of Thurgood Marshall, Denison, Tex., Sept. 5, 1947, NAACP Papers, LC.
15
. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 20, 1949, NAACP Papers, LC.
16
. “U.S. Enters Schools Cases,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Feb. 18, 1950, p. 2.
17
. W. I. Gibson, “Equality Impossible …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Apr. 15, 1950, p. 6.
18
. As cited in Genna Rae McNeil,
Groundwork
(Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), p. 199.
19
. As cited in ibid., p. 200.
20
. As cited in Jack Greenberg,
Crusaders in the Courts
(New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 4.
21
. “NAACP Board Grieves …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, May 6, 1950, p. 7.
22
. Louis Lautier, “NAACP Lawyers …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 10, 1950, p. 2.
23
. As cited in Gillette, “Heman Marion Sweatt,” p. 178.
24
. Heman Sweatt, “Why I Want to Attend …,”
Texas Ranger
, Sept. 1947, p. 40.
1
. Charles Jones to Thurgood Marshall, May 1949, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
2
. Carl Murphy to Eleanor Roosevelt, Aug. 30, 1949, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
3
. “Leaders Ridicule …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Aug. 27, 1949, p. 12.
4
. Ibid.
5
. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6
. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
7
. Henry Lee Moon interview with the Columbia Oral History Project; author’s interview with Herbert Hill.
8
. Richard Kluger interview with Herbert Hill, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9
. Arnold Aronson to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 26, 1951, NAACP Papers, LC; author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
10
. Author’s interviews with Claude Connor and Elizabeth Monteiro.
11
. Author’s interview with Evelyn Cunningham.
12
. James Poling, “Thurgood Marshall and the Fourteenth Amendment,”
Collier
’s, Feb. 23, 1952, pp. 29–32.
13
. Ibid.
14
. “New Federal Judge?”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Apr. 12, 1952, p. 1.
1
. “End of JC in Sight,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 17, 1950, p. 1.
2
. Author’s interview with Spottswood Robinson.
3
. Robert Carter interview with Radio America.
4
.
Mendez v. Westminster School District
(1946).
5
. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6
. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
7
. A. P. Tureaud to E. A. Johnson, July 15, 1950, Tureaud Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.
8
. Franklin Williams to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 9, 1948, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9
. Author’s interview with Robert Carter.
10
. Caroline Stevens interview with Kenneth Clark, June 21, 1988.
11
. Author’s interview with Kenneth Clark.
12
. J. Waties Waring interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
13
. Thurgood Marshall and Robert Carter, “Real Heroes in S.C.,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 16, 1951, p. 4.
14
. J. Waties Waring interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
15
. Victor Gray, “S.C. School Case …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 9, 1951, p. 2.
16
. Ibid.
17
. Ted Poston, “Time Running Out…,”
New York Post
, June 3, 1951, p. 22.
18
. Ibid.
19
. Hugh Speer,
Case of the Century
(Kansas City: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1968), p. 91.
20
. Tinsley Yarbrough,
A Passion for Justice
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), p. 195, from opinion in
Briggs v. Elliott
(1951).
21
. “S.C. Case …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, June 30, 1951, p. 19, dissent in
Briggs v. Elliott
(1951).
22
. William Henry Harbaugh,
Lawyer’s Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973).
23
. As cited in Yarbrough,
Passion for Justice
, p. 199.
24
. Marjorie McKenzie, in
Pittsburgh Courier
, July 7, 1951, p. 1.
25
. Richard Kluger interview with Marjorie McKenzie, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
26
. Franklin Williams to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 9, 1948, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
27
. Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice
(New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 411.
28
. Speer,
Case of the Century
, p. 49.
29
. Ibid., p. 78.
30
. Robert Carter to Thurgood Marshall, June 29, 1951, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
31
.
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
(1952).
32
. Author’s interview with June Shagaloff.
33
. Richard Kluger interview with Tom Clark, Oct. 8, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
1
. Richard Kluger interview with Charles Black, July 29, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
2
. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
3
. Thurgood Marshall speech at Howard Univ., Apr. 16, 1952, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
4
. James Freedman, Speech at Washington Univ. Law School, Feb. 16, 1994.
5
. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
6
. “The Fading Color Line,”
Time
, Dec. 21, 1953, p. 19.
7
. Excerpted in
Baltimore Afro-American
, Dec. 13, 1952, p. 14.
8
. Richard Kluger interview with Philip Elman, Aug. 19, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9
. Caroline Stevens interview with Julia Davis Adams, July 20, 1988.
10
. Caroline Stevens interview with Taggart Whipple, May 19, 1988.
11
. “Supreme Court Hears Final …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Dec. 20, 1952, p. 6.
12
. Oral arguments in the consolidated cases of
Brown v. Board of Education
(1952).
13
. “600 Laud Marshall …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Feb. 21, 1953, p. 22.
14
. Jack Greenberg,
Crusaders in the Courts
(New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 177.
15
. As cited in Mark Tushnet,
Making Civil Rights Law
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 187.
16
. As cited in ibid., p. 190; and Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice
(New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 606.
17
. Author’s interview with Warren Burger.
18
. Richard Kluger interview with Alfred Kelly, Dec. 28, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
19
. Alfred Kelly to Thurgood Marshall, Oct. 19, 1953, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
20
. George Stevens interview with John Hope Franklin, May 25, 1988.
21
. NAACP brief from
Brown v. Board of Education
(1953).
22
. “All Citizens …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, Dec. 5, 1953, p. 2.
23
. Author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
24
. Richard Kluger interview with Louis Pollack, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
25
. Author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
26
. Paul Wilson,
A Time to Lose
, (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1995), p. 188; William Coleman to Thurgood Marshall, Dec. 10, 1953, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
27
. Thurgood Marshall, Jan. 23, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
28
. Thurgood Marshall, Mar. 30, 1954, NAACP Papers, LC.
29
. “The Tension of Change,”
Time
, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 27.
30
. Radio America interview with E. Barrett Prettyman.
31
. John Geiger, “Mr. Civil Rights …,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 29, 1954, p. 13.
32
. “Segregation …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, May 29, 1954, p. 1.
33
. Author’s interview with Joe Greenhill.
1
. Author’s interview with Herbert Hill.
2
. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
3
. Author’s interview with Alice Stovall.
4
. Author’s interview with John A. Davis.
5
. Luther Huston, “1896 Ruling Upset,”
New York Times
, May 18, 1954, p. 1.
6
. “Ruling Gets Rebel Yell in South,”
Washington Daily News
, May 18, 1954;
Baltimore Afro-American
, Nov. 14, 1954, p. 1.
7
. “Editorial Excerpts,”
New York Times
, May 18, 1954, p. 19.
8
. William Henry Harbaugh,
Lawyer’s Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis
(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973), p. 511.
9
. Herbert Brownell oral history, Eisenhower Presidential Library.
10
. James Hicks, “NAACP Warns …,”
Baltimore Afro-American
, May 29, 1954, p. 1; “School Plan Set …,”
New York Times
, May 24, 1954, p. 19.
11
. John Geiger, “Mr. Civil Rights …,”
Pittsburgh Courier
, May 29, 1954, p. 13.
12
. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, Jan. 23, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.; speech of Thurgood Marshall, undated, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.