Been in the Storm So Long (121 page)

48.
Ibid.
, VII: Okla. Narr., 117. See also Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 17.

49.
Susie King Taylor,
Reminiscences of My Life in Camp: With the 33d United States Colored Troops Late 1st S.C. Volunteers
(Boston, 1904), 8; Thomas Wentworth Higginson,
Army Life in a Black Regiment
(Boston, 1869), 34, 217. For a discussion of “The Sacred World of Black Slaves,” see Lawrence W. Levine,
Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom
(New York, 1977), 3–80.

50.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 11. See also XVIII: Unwritten History, 76.

51.
Mrs. Octavia Victoria Rogers Albert,
The House of Bondage, or Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves
(New York, 1891), 55–56; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XII: Ga. Narr. (Part 1), 258.

52.
Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 106–07; Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 367.

53.
Coppin,
Unwritten History
, 64–66; Russell,
My Diary North and South
, 147; Esther W. Douglass to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Feb. 1, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives,
Amistad Research Center, Dillard University, New Orleans.

54.
Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 377; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, XV: N.C. Narr. (Part 2), 426.

55.
New York Times
, May 16, 1861, also reprinted in
Douglass’ Monthly
, IV (June 1861), 477; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 11. For slave recollections of clandestine gatherings, see also Albert,
House of Bondage
, 12; H. C. Bruce,
The New Man: Twenty-nine Years a Slave, Twenty-nine Years a Free Man
(York, Pa., 1895; repr. New York, 1969), 99; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 199, (Part 3), 240–41, (Part 4), 43, 154; VI: Ala. Narr., 68; VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 1), 9; XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 419.

56.
Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 269;
Douglass’ Monthly
, IV (July, Dec. 1861), 487, 564;
New York Times
, May 16, June 2, 7, Dec. 8, 1861. After confirming the rumor of a slave conspiracy nearby, Edmund Ruffin confided to his diary on May 26, 1861, that many slaves, “as in this case, have learned that Lincoln’s election was to produce general emancipation—& of course, many hoped for that, & since for northern military carrying out of that measure.”
Diary
, II, 35.

57.
Douglass’ Monthly
, IV (June 1861), 477; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 19. See also Bruce,
New Man
, 99–100; Washington,
Up from Slavery
, 8; and Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 616.

58.
39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
(Washington, D.C., 1866), Part II, 177. For examples of how ex-slaves recalled the causes and issues of the war, see Armstrong,
Old Massa’s People
, 265; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, VII: Miss. Narr., 40; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 101; XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 317; XVII: Fla. Narr., 292–93; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 216; Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 640.

59.
L. G. C. [Causey] to husband [R. J. Causey], Nov. 19, 1863, R. J. Causey Papers, Louisiana State Univ. For the strengthening of patrol laws, see Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 33–34. For the operation of the patrol system during slavery, see Kenneth M. Stampp,
The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South
(New York, 1956), 214–15, and Eugene D. Genovese,
Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made
(New York, 1974), 617–19.

60.
Brig. Gen. Richard Winter to Gov. John J. Pettus, June 6, 1862, in Betters-worth (ed.),
Mississippi in the Confederacy
, 77; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 36, 38; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 130; George C. Rogers, Jr.,
The History of Georgetown County, South Carolina
(Columbia, S.C., 1970), 406.

61.
Johns,
Florida During the Civil War
, 152; Ruffin,
Diary
, II, 35–36. See also Putnam,
Richmond During the Confederacy
, 264–66;
Richmond Dispatch
, Nov. 13, 1862, quoted in
New York Times
, Nov. 23, 1862; Myers (ed.),
Children of Pride
, 1152–53;
Jackson Daily Mississippian
, April 15, 1863, in Bettersworth (ed.),
Mississippi in the Confederacy
, 238–39; Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 126. For efforts to restrict urban blacks, see, e.g., E. Merton Coulter, “Slavery and Freedom in Athens, Georgia, 1860–66,” in Miller and Genovese (eds.),
Plantation, Town, and County
, 344–50.

62.
Bernard H. Nelson, “Legislative Control of the Southern Free Negro, 1861–1865,”
Catholic Historical Review
, XXXII (April 1946), 28–46; Vernon L. Wharton,
The Negro in Mississippi, 1866–1890
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1947), 18; Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 131; Louis H. Manarin (ed.),
Richmond at War: The Minutes of the City Council, 1861–1865
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1966), 346, 349; Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters
, 376.

63.
Nancy and D. Willard to Micajah Wilkinson, May 15, 1862, Micajah Wilkinson Papers, Louisiana State Univ.; Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 126–27; Robert L. Kerby,
Kirby Smith’s Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863–1865
(New York, 1972), 257. For the way in which College Hill, a Presbyterian community in Mississippi, dealt with a church member who had killed a “defiant” slave, see Maud M. Brown, “The War Comes to College Hill,”
Journal of Mississippi History
, XVI (Jan. 1954), 28–30.

64.
WPA,
Negro in Virginia
, 188.

65.
Simkins and Patton,
Women of the Confederacy
, 162.

66.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, VII: Okla. Narr., 217–18, 220–22.

67.
Albert V. House, Jr. (ed.), “Deterioration of a Georgia Rice Plantation During Four Years of Civil War,”
Journal of Southern
History
, IX (1943), 101–02; Louis Manigault to “Mon Cher Pere” [Charles Manigault], Nov. 24, Dec. 5, 1861, South Carolina Dept. of Archives and History, Columbia; Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 216; D. E. Huger Smith to Mrs. William Mason Smith, July 28, 1863, in Smith et al. (eds.),
Mason Smith Family Letters
, 57.

68.
Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 6–7; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 108; V (Part 3), 129; Simkins and Patton,
Women of the Confederacy
, 174.

69.
Albert,
House of Bondage
, 114–15; Charles Nordhoff,
The Freedmen of South Carolina: Some Account of Their Appearance, Character, Condition, and Peculiar Customs
[New York, 1863], 11–12; Mary Williams Pugh to Richard L. Pugh, Nov. 9, 1862, in Katharine M. Jones (ed.),
Heroines of Dixie: Confederate Women Tell Their Story of the War
(Indianapolis, 1955), 184; “Diary of John Berkley Grimball, 1858–1865,”
South Carolina Historical Magazine
, LVI (1955), 166–67. See also
Douglass’ Monthly
, IV (March 1862), 617; Henry L. Swint (ed.),
Dear Ones at Home: Letters from Contraband Camps
(Nashville, 1966), 42; Walter Clark,
The Papers of Walter Clark
(eds. Aubrey Lee Brooks and Hugh Talmage Lefler; 2 vols.; Chapel Hill, N.C., 1948), I, 94; Hitchcock,
Marching with Sherman
, 70.

70.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, VII: Okla. Narr., 221, 338; IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 150, (Part 2), 154–55. The Texas (TV-V) and Arkansas (VIII-XI) Narratives contain numerous recollections of the wartime migration. For a graphic description by a young white woman, see Stone,
Brokenburn
, 186–225. Still other accounts may be found in Sir Arthur James Lyon Fremantle,
Three Months in the Southern States: April-June, 1863
(New York, 1864), 82, 86, 87; Kerby,
Kirby Smith’s Confederacy
, 255, 392–93; Jefferson D. Bragg,
Louisiana in the Confederacy
(Baton Rouge, 1941), 216–17; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 4–6.

71.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 108, (Part 3), 30, 79–80; VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 2), 247.

72.
Mary Williams Pugh to Richard L. Pugh, Nov. 9, 1862, in Jones (ed.),
Heroines of Dixie
, 184. See also Bragg,
Louisiana in the Confederacy
, 217.

73.
Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 181–82; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 129, (Part 2), 155.

74.
Bayside Plantation Record, Louisiana, Part II, 1862–66, Southern Historical Collection, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; J. Carlyle Sitterson,
Sugar Country: The Cane Sugar Industry in the South, 1753–1950
(Lexington, Ky., 1953), 214–15.

75.
“Diary of John Berkley Grimball,” 166–67, 213–14; House (ed.), “Deterioration of a Georgia Rice Plantation,” 107; Henry Yates Thompson,
An Englishman in the American Civil War: The Diaries of Henry Yates Thompson, 1863
(ed. Christopher Chancellor; New York, 1971), 113; Johns,
Florida During the Civil War
, 152.

76.
Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 86–97. For accounts of slave prices during the war, see also Ruffin,
Diary
, II, 353, 466; Fremantle,
Three Months in the Southern States
, 62; Bettersworth,
Confederate Mississippi
, 167–69; and Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 130–31.

77.
Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, V: Texas Narr. (Part 4), 195; XVI: Va. Narr., 6; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 39; Chesnut,
Diary from Dixie
, 497.

78.
Montgomery Advertiser
, quoted in
Douglass’ Monthly
, IV (Sept. 1861), 526;
ibid.
, IV (July 1861), 481.

79.
James H. Brewer,
The Confederate Negro: Virginia’s Craftsmen and Military Laborers, 1861–1865
(Durham, N.C., 1969); Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 110–15; Coulter,
Confederate States of America
, 258; Charles B. Dew,
Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works
(New Haven, 1966), 250; WPA,
Negro in Virginia
, 193; Ruffin,
Diary
, II, 20;
New York Times
, Feb. 11, 1864.

80.
Richmond Examiner
, quoted in
New York Times
, Oct. 16, 1864. For the efforts to mobilize black manpower for the Confederate war effort, see Brewer,
Confederate Negro
, 6–11, 139–40; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 114–22; Coulter,
Confederate States of America
, 258–59; Bettersworth,
Confederate Mississippi
, 81–82; Bragg,
Louisiana in the Confederacy
, 218; Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 132–33; Johns,
Florida During the Civil War
, 151; Kerby,
Kirby Smith’s Confederacy
, 56–57, 254–55; Ravenel,
Private Journal
, 46, 50, 96.

81.
Wiley (ed.),
Letters of Warren Akin
, 33; Coulter,
Confederate States of America
, 259. For an owner who willingly sent her carriage driver for service on fortifications, see Mary Ann Cobb to F. W. C. Cook, July 12, 1864, in Coleman (ed.),
Athens, 1861–1865
, 94–95.

82.
Brewer,
Confederate Negro
, 153–55; “Diary of Benjamin L. C. Wailes,” quoted in Bettersworth (ed.),
Mississippi in the Confederacy
, 225–26. For conditions among the black military laborers, see also Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 123–31; Bettersworth,
Confederate Mississippi
, 169–70; Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 133; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 325;
New York Times
, Sept. 6, 1863;
New York Tribune
, Jan. 26, 1865.

83.
Bryan,
Confederate Georgia
, 132; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 124–25, 131–33; Quarles,
Negro in the Civil War
, 275; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 325.

84.
Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 132; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, IX: Ark. Narr. (Part 4), 182.

85.
Jacob Stroyer, “My Life in the South,” in William Loren Katz (ed.),
Five Slave Narratives
(New York, 1969), 35–36, 81–97.

86.
Stephen Moore to Rachel Moore, July 8, 1862, Thomas J. Moore Papers, Univ. of South Carolina. For the life of the body servant, see also Armstrong,
Old Massa’s People
, 282–91; WPA,
Negro in Virginia
, 193; Perdue et al. (eds.),
Weevils in the Wheat
, 167; Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 583; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, III: S.C. Narr. (Part 3), 154–55; IV: Texas Narr. (Part 2), 188–39; VI: Ala. Narr., 313–14; VII: Miss. Narr., 27–28; XII and XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 2), 107–08, 325–26, (Part 3), 272; Wiley,
Southern Negroes
, 134–42.

87.
Armstrong,
Old Massa’s People
, 281; John F. Stegeman,
These Men She Gave: The Civil War Diary of Athens, Georgia
(Athens, Ga., 1964), 39–40; Rawick (ed.),
American Slave
, III: S. C. Narr. (Part 3), 154. See also Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for Oct. 14, 1862, Univ. of South Carolina.