Darwin Among the Machines (49 page)

3
.
Ibid., 36.

4
.
J. B. S. Haldane, “On Being the Right Size,”
Possible Worlds
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1928), 28.

5
.
W. Ross Ashby, “Principles of the Self-Organizing System,” in Heinz von Foerster and George W. Zopf, eds.,
Principles of Self-Organization
, Transactions of the University of Illinois Symposium on Self-Organization, 8–9 June 1961 (New York: Pergamon Press, 1962), 266.

6
.
W. Ross Ashby, “Connectance of Large Dynamic (Cybernetic) Systems: Critical Values for Stability,”
Nature
228 (21 November 1970): 784.

7
.
W. Ross Ashby, “Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System,”
Journal of General Psychology
37 (1947): 125.

8
.
W. Ross Ashby, “The Physical Origin of Adaptation by Trial and Error,”
Journal of General Psychology
32 (1945): 24.

9
.
Ashby, “Trial and Error,” 13, 24.

10
.
Ibid., 20.

11
.
Ashby, “Principles of the Self-Organizing System,” 270, 273.

12
.
Ibid., 270–271.

13
.
Irving J. Good,
Speculations on Perceptions and other Automata
, IBM Research Lecture RC-115 (Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM, 1959), 17.

14
.
Robert L. Chapman, John L. Kennedy, Allen Newell, and William Biel, “The System Research Laboratory's Air Defense Experiments,”
Management Science
5, no. 3 (April 1959): 260.

15
.
Ibid., 252.

16
.
Ibid., 267.

17
.
John von Neumann, “The Impact of Recent Developments in Science on the Economy and on Economics,” speech to the National Planning Association, Washington, D.C., 12 December 1955; reprinted in
Collected Works
, vol. 6 (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963), 100.

18
.
Robert Crago, in “A Perspective on SAGE: Discussion,”
Annals of the History of Computing
5, no. 4 (October 1983): 386.

19
.
Beatrice K. Rome and Sydney C. Rome,
Leviathan: A Simulation of Behavioral Systems, to Operate Dynamically on a Digital Computer
, System Development Corporation report no. SP-50, 6 November 1959, 7.

20
.
Ibid., 11.

21
.
Beatrice K. Rome and Sydney C. Rome,
The Leviathan Technological System for the PHILCO 2000 Computer
, System Development Corporation Technical Memorandum TM-713, 11 April 1962, 8.

22
.
Rome and Rome,
Leviathan: A Simulation of Behavioral Systems
, 15.

23
.
Ibid., 24.

24
.
Ibid., 42.

25
.
Ibid.

26
.
Ibid., 48.

27
.
Beatrice K. Rome and Sydney C. Rome, “Leviathan, and Information Handling in Large Organizations,” in Allen Kent and Orrin Taulbee, eds.,
Electronic Information Handling
(Washington, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1965), 172–173.

28
.
Beatrice K. Rome and Sydney C. Rome,
Organizational Growth Through Decisionmaking
(New York: American Elsevier, 1971), 1.

29
.
Oliver G. Selfridge, “Pandemonium: A Paradigm for Learning,”
National Physical Laboratory Symposium No. 10 on the Mechanisation of Thought Processes
, vol. 1, proceedings of a symposium held at the National Physical Laboratory, 24–27 November 1958 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959), 516.

30
.
Ibid., 523.

31
.
Oliver Selfridge, “Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Software Technology,” abstract of lecture sponsored by Barr Systems, Inc., and the Department of Computer and Information Science and Engineering, University of florida, Gainesville, 23 October 1995.

32
.
Charles Darwin to Asa Gray, 5 September 1857, in
The Journal and Proceedings of the Linnean Society
3, no. 9 (1858): 51.

33
.
Samuel Butler,
Luck, or Cunning, as the main means of Organic Modification?
(London: Trübner & Co., 1887); reprinted as vol. 8 of
The Shrewsbury Edition of the Works of Samuel Butler
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1924), 234.

34
.
Ibid., 235.

35
.
Nils Barricelli, “The Intelligence Mechanisms behind Biological Evolution,”
Scientia
95 (September 1963): 178–179.

36
.
Butler,
Luck, or Cunning?
, 60.

37
.
Samuel Butler,
Unconscious Memory
(London: David Bogue, 1880); reprinted as vol. 6 of
The Shrewsbury Edition of the Works of Samuel Butler
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1924), 16.

38
.
William Paley, 1802,
Natural Theology
, vol. 2, reprinted, with illustrative notes, etc., in four volumes (London: Charles Knight, 1845), 9.

39
.
John von Neumann, in Arthur Burks, ed.,
Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966), 47.

40
.
John Myhill, “The Abstract Theory of Self-Reproduction,” in Mihajlo D. Mesarovic, ed.,
Views on General Systems Theory
, Proceedings of the Second Systems Symposium at Case Institute of Technology, 1964; reprinted in Arthur Burks, ed.,
Essays on Cellular Automata
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1970), 218.

41
.
John von Neumann, 1948, “The General and Logical Theory of Automata,” in Lloyd A. Jeffress, ed.,
Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior: The Hixon Symposium
(New York: Hafner, 1951), 31.

42
.
Robert Chambers,
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
(London: John Churchill, 1844), 222–223.

43
.
Nils Barricelli, in Paul S. Moorhead and Martin M. Kaplan, eds.,
Mathematical Challenges to the Neo-Darwinian Interpretation of Evolution
, A Symposium Held at the Wistar Institute, April 25–26, 1966 (Philadelphia: Wistar Institute, 1967), 67.

44
.
Lewis Thomas, “The Lives of a Cell,”
New England Journal of Medicine
284, no. 19 (13 May 1971): 1083.

45
.
Lewis Thomas, “On Societies as Organisms,”
New England Journal of Medicine
285, no. 29 (8 July 1971): 101.

46
.
Ibid., 102.

47
.
Lewis Thomas, “Computers,”
New England Journal of Medicine
288, no. 24 (14 June 1973): 1289.

48
.
Lewis Thomas, “On Artificial Intelligence,”
New England Journal of Medicine
, 28 February 1980: 506.

49
.
Lewis Thomas,
Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony
(New York: Viking, 1983), 17.

50
.
Charles Darwin,
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication
(London: John Murray, 1868; 2d ed., New York: Appleton, 1896), 2:399 (page citation is to 2d edition).

51
.
Philip Morrison, “Entropy, Life, and Communication,” in Cyril Ponnamperuma and A. G. W. Cameron, eds.,
Interstellar Communication: Scientific Perspectives
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 182.

1
.
Olaf Stapledon,
Last and First Men
(London: Methuen, 1930); reprinted, from the U.S. edition of 1931, in
Last and First Men & Star Maker
(New York: Dover Publications, 1968), 117.

2
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 22 December 1917, in Robert Crossley, ed.,
Talking Across the World: The Love Letters of Olaf Stapledon and Agnes Miller, 1913–1919
(Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1987), 262–263.

3
.
Olaf Stapledon, “Experiences in the Friends' Ambulance Unit,” in Julian Bell, ed.,
We Did Not Fight 1914–1918: Experiences of War Resisters
(London: Cobden-Sanderson, 1935), 369.

4
.
Ibid., 360.

5
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 28 February 1915, in Crossley,
Talking Across the World
, 75.

6
.
Meaburn Tatham and James E. Miles, eds.,
The Friends' Ambulance Unit 1914–1919: A Record
(London: Swarthmore Press, 1920), 212.

7
.
Stapledon, “Experiences,” 362.

8
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 22 October 1918, in Crossley,
Talking Across the World
, 332.

9
.
Stapledon, “Experiences,” 372.

10
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 26 December 1917, in Crossley,
Talking Across the World
, 264–265.

11
.
Lewis Richardson, as quoted by Ernest Gold, “Lewis Fry Richardson, 1881–1953,”
Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society
9 (November 1954): 230.

12
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 12 January 1918, in Crossley,
Talking Across the World
, 270.

13
.
Lewis Fry Richardson,
Weather Prediction by Numerical Process
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922; facsimile reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1965), 219.

14
.
Olaf Stapledon to Agnes Miller, 8 December 1916, in Crossley,
Talking Across the World
, 192–193.

15
.
Olaf Stapledon,
Death into Life
(London: Methuen, 1946); reprinted in Olaf Stapledon,
Worlds of Wonder: Three Tales of Fantasy
(Los Angeles: Fantasy Publishing Co., 1949), 130 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

16
.
Olaf Stapledon,
The Star Maker
(London: Methuen, 1937); reprinted in
Last and First Men & Star Maker
(New York: Dover Publications, 1968), 263–264.

17
.
Stapledon,
Last and First Men
, 119.

18
.
Ibid., 117–118.

19
.
Ibid., 118.

20
.
Ibid., 129.

21
.
Ibid., 142.

22
.
Frederic W. H. Myers,
Phantasms of the Living
(London: Trübner, 1886), lxv.

23
.
Frederic W. H. Myers,
Science and a Future Life
(London: Macmillan, 1893), 50.

24
.
Stapledon,
Last and First Men
, 222.

25
.
Fred Hoyle,
The Black Cloud
(London: Heinemann, 1957; reprint, Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1960), 158 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

26
.
Irving J. Good, “The Mind-Body Problem, or Could an Android Feel Pain?” in Jordan M. Scher, ed.,
Theories of the Mind
(New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), 496–497.

27
.
Irving J. Good, personal communication, 12 July 1994.

28
.
Irving J. Good, “Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine,”
Advances in Computers
6 (1965): 35–36.

29
.
Paul Baran, “Is the UHF Frequency Shortage a Self Made Problem?” address to Marconi Centennial Symposium, Bologna, Italy, 23 June 1995.

30
.
Ibid.

31
.
Lewis Thomas, “Social Talk,”
New England Journal of Medicine
287, no. 19 (9 November 1973): 974.

32
.
Olaf Stapledon,
Nebula Maker
(Hayes, Middlesex: Bran's Head Books, 1976); reprinted in
Nebula Maker & Four Encounters
(New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1983), 47–48.

33
.
Stapledon,
Star Maker
, 332.

34
.
Ibid.

1
.
Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1851,
The House of the Seven Gables
, centenary ed. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1965), 264.

2
.
Loren Eiseley,
The Invisible Pyramid
(New York: Scribner's, 1970), 21.

3
.
William of Malmesbury, ca. 1125, in J. A. Giles, ed.,
William of Malmesbury's Chronicle of the Kings of England; from the Earliest Period to the Reign of King Stephen
(London: Henry Bonn, 1847), 174.

4
.
Ibid., 181.

5
.
The Famous History of Frier Bacon, Containing the wonderful things that he did in his Life; Also the manner of his Death, with the Lives and Deaths of the two Conjurers Bungey and Vandermast. Very pleasant and delightful to be read
(London: T. Passenger, 1679), 12–13.

6
.
Ibid., 15.

7
.
Ibid., 17.

8
.
Warren S. McCulloch, “Where Is Fancy Bred?” in Henry W. Brosin, ed.,
Lectures on Experimental Psychiatry
(Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961), reprinted in
Embodiments of Mind
(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965), 229.

9
.
Olaf Stapledon,
Nebula Maker
(Hayes, Middlesex: Bran's Head Books, 1976); reprinted in
Nebula Maker & Four Encounters
(New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1983), 38.