Gateway to Freedom: The Hidden History of the Underground Railroad (37 page)

16.
David F. Ericson,
Slavery in the American Republic: Developing the Federal Government, 1791–1861
(Lawrence, Kans., 2011), 83, 206–8; Max Farrand, ed.,
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787
(3 vols.; New Haven, 1911), 2: 443–53.

17.
Farrand, ed.,
Records
, 3: 254–55, 325; H. Robert Baker,
Prigg v. Pennsylvania: Slavery, the Supreme Court, and the Ambivalent Constitution
(Lawrence, Kans., 2012), 41–44.

18.
T. K. Hunter, “Transatlantic Negotiations: Lord Mansfield, Liberty and Somerset,”
Texas Wesleyan Law Review
, 13 (Symposium 2007), 711–27; H. Robert Baker, “The Fugitive Slave Clause and the Antebellum Constitution,”
Law and History Review
, 30 (November 2012), 1133–37; Fehrenbacher,
Slaveholding Republic
, 240–41.

19.
Ericson,
Slavery in the American Republic
, 206–9; Finkelman, “Kidnapping,” 397–422.

20.
Baker, “Fugitive Slave Clause,” 1136–40; Fehrenbacher,
Slaveholding Republic
, 211–14.

21.
Zilversmit,
First Emancipation
, 139–51; David Gellman,
Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery and Freedom, 1777–1827
(Baton Rouge, 2006), 33–34, 46; Kruger, “Born to Run,” 725–29.

22.
Thomas R. Moseley, “A History of the New York Manumission Society, 1785–1849” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1963), 1–2, 26–38;
Constitution of the New-York Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves, and Protecting Such of Them as Have Been, or May Be Liberated
(New York, 1796); Richard S. Newman,
The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic
(Chapel Hill, 2002), 88; Zilversmit,
First Emancipation
, 163, 224.

23.
Shane White,
Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 1770–1810
(Athens, Ga., 1991), 86–87; William Jay,
Life of John Jay
(2 vols.; New York, 1833), 1: 335; Hodges,
Root and Branch
, 166–67; Gellman,
Emancipating New York
, 161–63; Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 49–64, 208; Moseley, “History of the New York Manumission Society,” 1–2, 33–35, 92–94.

24.
Zilversmit,
First Emancipation
, 149–51; White,
Stories of Freedom
, 12-13; White,
Somewhat More Independent
, 5–9.

25.
White,
Stories of Freedom
, 13; Burrows and Wallace,
Gotham
, 286, 348; Kruger, “Born to Run,” 819; Patrick Rael, “The Long Death of Slavery,” in Berlin and Harris, eds.,
Slavery in New York
, 124–25; Zilversmit,
First Emancipation
, 176.

26.
Gellman,
Emancipating New York
, 160; White,
Somewhat More Independent
, 32–36, 46, 141, 148; Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 68.

27.
Zilversmit,
First Emancipation
, 176–82, 208, 213–14; Hodges,
Root and Branch
, 163–64; Rael, “Long Death,” 126–44; Craig Wilder,
A Covenant with Color: Race and Social Power in Brooklyn
(New York, 2000), 39; Freeman,
Free Negro
, 6.

28.
Philip S. Foner,
Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict
(Chapel Hill, 1941), 1–6; David Quigley, “Southern Slavery in a Free City: Economy, Politics, and Culture,” in Berlin and Harris, eds.,
Slavery in New York
, 266–78;
Anti-Slavery Record
(July 1837); J. D. B. De Bow,
The Interest in Slavery of the Southern Non-Slaveholder
(Charleston, 1860), 5; Wilder,
Covenant with Color
, 55–58.

29.
Foner,
Business and Slavery
, 1–6; A. K. Sandoval-Strausz,
Hotel: An American History
(New Haven, 2007), 286; John Hope Franklin,
A Southern Odyssey: Travelers in the Antebellum North
(Baton Rouge, 1976), 21, 42, 69, 89.

30.
MOL
, August 1840; James S. Gibbons to Abby Hopper Gibbons, August 7, 1840, Abby Hopper Gibbons Papers, FHL.

31.
White,
Stories of Freedom
, 29; Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 73–82; Daniel Perlman, “Organizations of the Free Negro in New York City, 1800–1860,”
Journal of Negro History
, 36 (July 1971), 181–97; Margaret Washington,
Sojourner Truth’s America
(Urbana, Ill., 2009), 130; Richard S. Newman and James Mueller, eds.,
Antislavery and Abolition in Philadelphia: Emancipation and the Long Struggle for Racial Justice in the City of Brotherly Love
(Baton Rouge, 2011), 6–7.

32.
Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 119; Tyler Anbinder,
Five Points
(New York, 2001), 1–2;
NYT
, August 11, 1853; Leonard P. Curry,
The Free Black in Urban America, 1800–1850
(Chicago, 1981), 260; Berlin and Harris, “Introduction,” 17–20, 23–24; Hodges,
Root and Branch
, 232–33; Leslie M. Alexander,
African or American? Black Identity and Political Activism in New York City, 1784–1861
(Urbana, Ill., 2008), 31–32.

33.
Craig Wilder,
In the Company of Black Men: The African Influence on African American Culture in New York City
(New York, 2001), 73; Carla Peterson, “Black Life in Freedom: Creating an Elite Culture,” in Berlin and Harris, eds.,
Slavery in New York
, 184–204.

34.
FJ
, April 20, July 6, 1827.

35.
White,
Stories of Freedom
, 26–30; Paul A. Gilje,
The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763–1834
(Chapel Hill, 1987), 147–52.

36.
MOL
, January 1839;
CA
, July 3, 1841; Margaret Bacon,
Freedom’s Journal: The First African-American Newspaper
(Lanham, Md., 2007), 236–37;
FJ
, October 31, November 7, 14, December 5, 1828;
A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper, from American Slavery
(Philadelphia, 1838), 59–63; Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond, eds.,
Letters of Theodore Dwight Weld, Angelina Grimké and Sarah Grimké, 1822–1844
(2 vols.: New York, 1934), 1: 481.

37.
Carol Wilson,
Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780–1865
(Lexington, Ky., 1994), 10–34; Julie Winch, “Philadelphia and the Other Underground Railroad,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
, 111 (January 1987), 3–25; Stanley Harrold,
Border War: Fighting over Slavery before the Civil War
(Chapel Hill, 2010), 53–54;
FJ
, June 22, 1827, February 15, July 6, 25, November 7, 1828, January 31, 1829;
Pennsylvania Freeman
, May 9, 1844; Peter P. Hinks, “ ‘Frequently Plunged into Slavery’: Free Blacks and Kidnapping in Antebellum Boston,”
Historical Journal of Massachusetts
, 20 (Winter 1992), 16–31.

38.
Gellman,
Emancipating New York
, 47; Charles C. Andrews,
The History of the New York African Free Schools
(New York, 1830), 8–9; Moseley, “History of the New York Manumission Society,” 21, 144–47; Freeman,
Free Negro
, 53; Wilson,
Freedom at Risk
, 113;
FJ
, March 7, 1829.

39.
Baker, “Fugitive Slave Clause,” 1142–51; Baker,
Prigg v. Pennsylvania
, 73–77; Thomas D. Morris,
Free Men All: The Personal Liberty Laws of the North, 1780–1861
(Baltimore, 1974), 45–60; Ericson,
Slavery in the American Republic
, 215–16; John L. Dorsey,
Documentary History of Slavery in the United States
(Washington, D.C., 1851), 54–55.

40.
Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 207–9;
BAP
, 3: 180;
MOL
, January 1839;
Weekly Advocate
, January 14, 1837.

41.
Isaac V. Brown,
Biography of the Rev. Robert Finley
(2nd ed.: Philadelphia, 1857), 103–15; Douglas R. Egerton, “Averting a Crisis: The Proslavery Critique of the American Colonization Society,”
Civil War History
, 43 (June 1997), 143–47; Daniel W. Howe,
The Political Culture of the American Whigs
(Chicago, 1979), 136; Rael, “Long Death,” 143.

42.
Hugh Davis, “Northern Colonizationists and Free Blacks, 1823–1837: The Case of Leonard Bacon,”
Journal of the Early Republic
, 17 (Winter 1997), 651–75; Paul Goodman,
Of One Blood: Abolitionism and the Origins of Racial Equality
(Berkeley, 1998), xv–2;
BAP
, 3: 80; William M. Brewer, “John Brown Russwurm,”
Journal of Negro History
, 13 (October 1928), 413–22;
FJ
, February 14, 21, 1829.

43.
Newman,
Transformation
, 96–97; Newman and Mueller, eds.,
Antislavery and Abolition
, 6–7; Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
, 121–40; David E. Swift,
Black Prophets of Justice: Activist Clergy before the Civil War
(Baton Rouge, 1989), 27–34;
FJ
, March 16, 1827.

44.
Manisha Sinha, “Black Abolitionism: The Assault on Southern Slavery and the Struggle for Racial Equality,” in Berlin and Harris, eds.,
Slavery in New York
, 243–45;
CA
, May 9, 1840.

45.
William Lloyd Garrison,
Thoughts on African Colonization
(Boston, 1832), 5; Sinha, “Black Abolitionism,” 245–46; Paul Starr,
The Creation of the Media
(New York, 2004), 86–88; Newman,
Transformation
, 131–32, 158–59.

46.
Aileen S. Kraditor,
Means and Ends in American Abolitionism
(New York, 1969), 4–6;
Declaration of Sentiments and Constitution of the American Anti-Slavery Society
(New York, 1835).

47.
Swift,
Black Prophets
, 43; Alexander,
African or American?
, 84–85; Goodman,
Of One Blood
, 249.

48.
Sean Wilentz,
The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln
(New York, 2005), 423–32; Alice H. Henderson, “The History of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1963), 2–4, 43, 203; Hugh Davis,
Joshua Leavitt: Evangelical Abolitionist
(Baton Rouge, 1990), 101; Bertram Wyatt-Brown,
Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War against Slavery
(Cleveland, 1969), 104–5.

49.
Gerald Sorin,
The New York Abolitionists: A Case Study of Political Radicalism
(Westport, Conn., 1971), 71–75; Henderson, “History of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society,” 6–11; Wyatt-Brown,
Lewis Tappan
, 102–9, 145; William Still,
The Underground Railroad
(rev. ed.: Philadelphia, 1878), 676;
NYS
, November 9, 1835.

50.
Lewis Tappan,
The Life of Arthur Tappan
(New York, 1870), 182, 313; Barnes and Dumond, eds.,
Letters
,
2: 512–13; Still,
Underground Railroad
, 678.

51.
William Jay to J. C. Hornblower, July 17, 1851, JP; Stephen P. Budney,
William Jay: Abolitionist and Anticolonialist
(Westport, Conn., 2005), 40–41; William Jay to S. S. Jocelyn, August 21, 1833; Will of William Jay, May 15, 1858, JJH; Joseph Sturge,
A Visit to the United States in 1841
(London, 1842), 55.

52.
Fergus M. Bordewich,
Bound for Canaan: The Epic Story of the Underground Railroad, America’s First Civil Rights Movement
(New York, 2005), 50–59; Margaret Hope Bacon,
Abby Hopper Gibbons: Prison Reformer and Social Activist
(Albany, 2000), 1–30, 70;
NS
, May 19, 1854;
Liberator
, October 22, 1858; Graham Russell Gao Hodges,
David Ruggles: A Radical Black Abolitionist and the Underground Railroad in New York City
(Chapel Hill, 2010), 50, 87. Daniel E. Meaders,
Kidnappers in Philadelphia: Isaac Hopper’s Tales of Oppression, 1780–1843
(New York, 1994), reproduces Hopper’s articles.

53.
James B. Stewart, “From Moral Suasion to Political Confrontation: American Abolitionists and the Problem of Resistance,” in David W. Blight, ed.,
Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory
(Washington, D.C., 2004), 82–83;
CA
, November 18, 1837; Benjamin Quarles,
Black Abolitionists
(New York, 1969), 30–34.

54.
Michael Feldberg,
The Turbulent Era: Riot and Disorder in Jacksonian America
(New York, 1980), 93–94; Burrows and Wallace,
Gotham
, 440; Leonard P. Richards,
“Gentlemen of Property and Standing”: Anti-Abolition Mobs in Jacksonian America
(New York, 1970), 77; Linda K. Kerber, “Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834,”
New York History
, 48 (January 1967), 30; Wyatt-Brown,
Lewis Tappan
, 115; Anbinder,
Five Points
, 7–9.