Qatar: Small State, Big Politics (31 page)

129
. Ulrichsen,
Insecure Gulf
, 6.

130
. Ibid., 4.

131
. Ibid., 34–35.

132
. Sean Foley,
The Arab Gulf States
(Boulder, CO, 2010), 152.

133
. Held and Ulrichsen, “The Transformation of the Gulf,” 23.

134
. Ulrichsen,
Insecure Gulf
, 173.

135
. Ibid., 3.

136
. Ibid., 59.

137
. Toksoz, “The GCC,” 94.

138
. Ulrichsen,
Insecure Gulf
, 181, 173, 91, 77.

139
. Ibid., 76.

140
. Foley,
The Arab Gulf States
, 148.

141
. Two examples include the purpose-built cities of Masdar in Abu Dhabi and Lusail in Qatar. Lusail will be discussed in chapter 5. On Masdar, see
http://www.masdarcity.ae
.

142
. “Abu Dhabi Property Market Continues to Soften,” 5 July 2011,
http://www.zawya.com
.

143
. “Rent-Free Periods to Continue in 2012; Expect Further Declines,” 8 January 2012,
http://www.zawya.com
.

144
. Kenneth Waltz,
Theory of International Politics
(Long Grove, IL1979), 65–66.

145
. Hunter,
Building Security in the Persian Gulf
, 19.

146
. Hinnebusch, “Introduction,” 15.

147
. Barnett,
Dialogue in Arab Politics
, ix.

148
. Ibid., 39.

149
. Foley,
The Arab Gulf States
, 144.

150
. Fred Halliday,
The Middle East in International Relations
(Cambridge, 2005), 5.

151
. Ulrichsen,
Insecure Gulf
, 126.

152
. For a good, if by now outdated, background summary of Qatar’s LNG production and exports, see Justin Dargin, “Qatar’s Natural Gas”
Middle East Policy
14, no. 3 (Fall 2007), 136–142.

153
. “Iran Starts Drilling in Largest Joint Oil Field with Qatar,” 16 July 2012,
http://www.zawya.com
.

154
. British Petroleum,
BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2011
, 22.

155
. James C. Scott,
Seeing Like a State
(New Haven, CT, 1998), 87–90.

156
. Ulrichsen,
Insecure Gulf
, 102.

157
. Robert O. Keohane,
After Hegemony
(Princeton, NJ, 1984), 107.

158
. Ibid., 84.

159
. Keohane argues that international regimes are established by hegemons, rather than by less powerful actors, though the successful articulation of a vision of mutual benefits. Ibid., 137.

2. The Subtle Powers of a Small State

1
. John J. Mearsheimer,
The Tragedy of Great Power Politics
(New York, 2001), 5.

2
. Kenneth Waltz,
Theory of International Politics
(Long Grove, IL, 1979), 72.

3
. Ibid., 73.

4
. Miriam Fendius Elman, “The Foreign Policies of Small States,”
British Journal of Political Science
25, no. 2 (April 1995), 175.

5
. Anthony Payne, “Small States in the Global Politics of Development,”
Round Table
93, no. 376 (2004), 634.

6
. Two essays, both in the same volume, best represent this trend: Andrew F. Cooper and Timothy W. Shaw, “The Diplomacies of Small States at the Start of the Twenty-First Century: How Vulnerable? How Resilient?” and Anthony Payne, “Vulnerability as a Condition, Resilience as a Strategy,” in Andrew F. Cooper and Timothy W. Shaw, eds.,
The Diplomacies of Small States: Between Vulnerability and Resilience
(New York, 2009), 1–18 and 279–285, respectively.

7
. Neil Ford, “Qatar Punches above Its Weight,”
Middle East
(March 2004), 49–54.

8
. Robert Keohane, “The Big Influence of Small Allies,”
Foreign Policy
, no. 2 (Spring 1971), 162–163.

9
. Cooper and Shaw, “The Diplomacies of Small States at the Start of the Twenty-First Century,” 4.

10
. Richard L. Armitage and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “How America Can Become a Smarter Power,” in Richard Armitage and Joseph Nye, eds.
CSIS Commission on Smart Power
(Washington, DC, 2007), 7.

11
. Despite a number of groundbreaking works on the topic, the definition of a small state remains essentially contested. See, for example, Jeanne A. K. Hey, “Introducing Small State Foreign Policy,” in Jeanne A. K. Hey, ed.
Small States in World Politics
(Boulder, CO, 2003), 2–4; Christos Kassimeris, “The Foreign Policy of Small Powers,”
International Politics
46, no. 1 (2009), 88–89; Matthias Maas, “The Elusive Definition of the Small States,”
International Politics
46, no. 1 (2009), 65–83; Iver B. Neumann and Sieglinde Gstohl, “Introduction?” in Christine Ingebritsen et al., eds.,
Small States in International Relations
(Seattle, WA), 4–7; and Payne, “Small States in the Global Politics of Development,” 626. Much of the difference in the conception of small state can be traced to the criterion used to measure smallness—that is geographic or population size, leaders’ perceptions, etc. Sutton goes so far as to say that it is difficult to classify small states as a “distinct category” and instead “we are dealing with degrees, not kind.” Paul Sutton, “What Are the Priorities for Small States in the International System?”
Round Table,
no. 351 (1999), 399. In specific relation to Qatar, the country is small regardless of the yardstick against which it is measured. The country’s total population numbers approximately 1.6 million, of whom only about 15 percent are citizens, with the rest tightly controlled and segregated. The country’s landmass, meanwhile, measures only 11,500 sq. km., as compared to the neighboring states of Saudi Arabia (approximately 2,000,000 sq. km.), the United Arab Emirates (77,700 sq. km.), and Iran (1,640,000 sq. km.), with only Bahrain being smaller (691 sq. km.).

12
. Christopher Easter, “Small States Development: A Commonwealth Vulnerability Index,”
Round Table
, no. 351 (1999), 403–422; Anthony Payne, “Small States in the Global Politics of Development”
Round Table,
93, no. 376 (2004), 623–635; Barbara Von Tigerstrom, “Small Island Developing States and International Trade”
Melbourne Journal of International Law
6 (2005), 402–407; Ganesh Wignaraja, Marlon Lezama, and David Joiner,
Small States Transition from Vulnerability to Competitiveness
(London, 2004), 4; and World Bank,
Small States
(Washington, DC, 2006), 2–3.

13
. Christos Kassimeris, “The Foreign Policy of Small Powers,”
International Politics
46, no. 1 (2009), 90.

14
. Stephen Walt, “Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power,”
International Security
9, no. 4 (1985), 33.

15
. Heinz Gartner defines alliances as “formal associations of states bound by mutual commitment to use military force against non-member states to defend member states’ integrity” (Heinz Gartner, “Small States and Alliances,” in Erich Reiter and Heinz Gartner, eds.,
Small States and Alliances
(New York, 2001), 2). My usage of “alliance” here is less restrictive in that it may involve a formal security pact or, alternatively, a less formalized but no less solid arrangement or understanding whereby the small state endorses the general policy objective of the great power in exchange for overall support in international relations, as well as guarantees of security and protection against outside threats.

16
. Robert O. Keohane, “The Big Influence of Small Allies,”
Foreign Policy
2 (1971), 166.

17
. Gartner, “Small States and Alliances,” 3.

18
. Charles-Michel Geurts, “The European Commission,” in Laurent Goestschel, ed.,
Small States Inside and Outside the European Union
(London, 1998), 49–64; Antti Kuosmanen, “Decision-Making in the Council of the European Union,” in ibid., 65–78.

19
. Mark Hong, “Small States in the United Nations,”
International Social Science Journal
47, no. 2 (1995), 278.

20
. Laurent Goestschel, “The Foreign and Security Policy Interests of Small States in Today’s Europe,” in Laurent Goestschel, ed.
Small States Inside and Outside the European Union
(London, 1998), 17. For a full treatment of alliance behavior, see Glenn Snyder, “The Security Dilemma in Alliance Politics,”
World Politics
36, no. 4 (1984), 461–495.

21
. Volker Kraus and J. David Singer, “Minor Powers, Alliances, and Armed Conflict: Some Preliminary Patterns,” in Erich Reiter and Heinz Gartner, eds.,
Small States and Alliances
(New York, 2001), 19.

22
. Svend Aage Christensen, “The Danish Experience—Denmark in NATO, 1949–1999,” in ibid., 93.

23
. Gartner, “Small States and Alliances,” 2.

24
. Neumann and Gstohl, “Introduction?” 11.

25
. J. W. Kingdon,
Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policy
(Boston, MA, 1984), 189.

26
. Peter Viggo Jakobsen, “Small States, Big Influence,”
Journal of Common Market Studies
47, no. 1 (2009), 86–87.

27
. Ibid., 87.

28
. Hong, “Small States in the United Nations,” 279.

29
. Kuik Cheng-Chwee, “The Essence of Hedging,”
Contemporary Southeast Asia
30, no. 2 (2008), 163.