Strategy (123 page)

2
. Robert Michels,
Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy
(New York: The Free Press, 1962), 46. First published in 1900.

3
. Wolfgang Mommsen, “Robert Michels and Max Weber: Moral Conviction versus the Politics of Responsibility,” in Wolfgang and Jurgen Osterhammel, 126.

4
. Michels,
Political Parties
, 338.

5
. Gaetano Mosca,
The Ruling Class
(New York: McGraw Hill, 1939), 50. First published in 1900.

6
. Ibid., 451.

7
. David Beetham, “Mosca, Pareto, and Weber: A Historical Comparison,” in Wolfgang Mommsen and Jurgen Osterhammel, eds.,
Max Weber and His Contemporaries
(London: Allen & Unwin, 1987), 139–158.

8
. Vilfredo Pareto,
The Mind and Society
, edited by Arthur Livingston, 4 volumes (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1935).

9
. Geraint Parry,
Political Elites
(London: George Allen & Unwin, 1969).

10
. Gustave Le Bon,
The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind
(New York: The Macmillan Co., 1896), 13, available at
http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng//files/04/72/11/f047211/public/BonCrow.html
.

11
. Hughes,
Consciousness and Society
, 161.

12
. Irving Louis Horowitz,
Radicalism and the Revolt Against Reason: The Social Theories of George Sorel
(Abingdon: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 2009). He notes, however, Sorel's “poverty of formal organization … indiscriminate shifting of the basis of an argument from fact to hypothesis to free speculation … tendentious style” (p. 9).

13
. Jeremy Jennings, ed.,
Sorel: Reflections on Violence
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), viii. First published 1906 in
Le Mouvement Sociale
.

14
. Antonio Gramsci,
The Modern Prince & Other Writings
(New York: International Publishers, 1957), 143.

15
. Thomas R. Bates, “Gramsci and the Theory of Hegemony,”
Journal of the History of Ideas
36, no. 2 (April–June 1975): 352.

16
. Joseph Femia, “Hegemony and Consciousness in the Thought of Antonio Gramsci,”
Political Studies
23, no. 1 (1975): 37.

17
. Ibid., 33.

18
. Gramsci,
The Modern Prince
, 137.

19
. Walter L. Adamson,
Hegemony and Revolution: A Study of Antonio Gramsci's Political and Cultural Thought
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 223, 209.

20
. Ibid., 223.

21
. T. K. Jackson Lears, “The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities,”
The American Historical Review
90, no. 1 (June 1985): 578.

22
. Adolf Hitler,
Mein Kampf
, vol. I, ch. X. First published in 1925.

23
. James Burnham,
The Managerial Revolution
(London: Putnam, 1941). See also Kevin J. Smant,
How Great the Triumph: James Burnham, Anti-Communism, and the Conservative Movement
(New York: University Press of America, 1991).

24
. Bruno Rizzi,
The Bureaucratization of the World
, translated by Adam Westoby (New York: The Free Press, 1985).

25
. Ibid., 223–225, 269.

26
. See, for example, C. Wright Mills, “A Marx for the Managers,” in Irving Horowitz, ed.,
Power, Politics and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), 53–71. George Orwell voiced many misgivings, noting Burnham's earlier presumption of German victory in the war, yet he nonetheless used Burnham's geopolitical analysis, predicting a world divided into three strategic centers for world control, each similar to the other yet engaged in a constant struggle, as the basis for his dystopian novel,
1984
. As always, Orwell's analysis makes for fascinating reading. See his “James Burnham and the Managerial Revolution,”
New English Weekly
, May 1946, available at
http://www.k-1.com/Orwell/site/work/essays/burnham.html
.

27
. This was not fully published in English until 1972, although it was reflected in other writings of Park.

28
. Stuart Ewen,
PR! A Social History of Spin
(New York: Basic Books, 1996), 69.

29
. Ibid., 68.

30
. Robert Park,
the Mass and the Public, and Other Essays
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 80. First published in 1904.

31
. Cited by Ewen,
PR!
, 48.

32
. Ronald Steel,
Walter Lippmann and the American Century
(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999).

33
. W. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas,
The Child in America: Behavior Problems and Programs
(New York: Knopf, 1928). Robert Merton, who turned Thomas's aphorism into a theorem, described it as “probably the single most consequential sentence ever put in print by an American sociologist.” “Social Knowledge and Public Policy,” in
Sociological Ambivalence
(New York: Free Press, 1976), 174. See also Robert Merton, “The Thomas Theorem and the Matthew Effect,”
Social Forces
74, no. 2 (December 1995): 379–424.

34
. Walter Lippmann,
Public Opinion
(New York: Harcourt Brace & Co, 1922), 59, available at
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Hyper2/CDFinal/Lippman/cover.html
.

35
. Michael Schudson, “The ‘Lippmann-Dewey Debate' and the Invention of Walter Lippmann as an Anti-Democrat 1986–1996,”
International Journal of Communication
2 (2008): 140.

36
. Harold D. Lasswell, “The Theory of Political Propaganda,”
The American Political Science Review
21, no. 3 (August 1927): 627–631.

37
. Sigmund Freud,
Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
(London: The Hogarth Press, 1949). First published 1922, available at
http://archive.org/stream/grouppsychologya00freu/grouppsychologya00freu_djvu.txt
.

38
. Wilfred Trotter,
Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War
(New York: Macmillan, 1916); Harvey C. Greisman, “Herd Instinct and the Foundations of Biosociology,”
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences
15 (1979): 357–369.

39
. Edward Bernays,
Crystallizing Public Opinion
(New York: Liveright, 1923), 35.

40
. Edward Bernays,
Propaganda
(New York: H. Liveright, 1936), 71.

41
. The title of a 1947 article, Edward L. Bernays, “The Engineering of Consent,”
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
250 (1947): 113.

42
. There remains debate about whether or not this really made a difference to women's smoking habits. See Larry Tye,
The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations
(New York: Holt, 1998), 27–35.

43
. “Are We Victims of Propaganda? A Debate. Everett Dean Martin and Edward L. Bernays,”
Forum Magazine
, March 1929.

1
. Laura E. Nym Mayhall,
The Militant Suffrage Movement: Citizenship and Resistance in Britain, 1860–1930
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 45, 79, 107, 115.

2
. Donna M. Kowal, “One Cause, Two Paths: Militant vs. Adjustive Strategies in the British and American Women's Suffrage Movements,”
Communication Quarterly
48, no. 3 (2000): 240–255.

3
. Henry David Thoreau,
Civil Disobedience
, originally published as
Resistance to Civil Government
(1849). Available at
http://thoreau.eserver.org/civil.html
.

4
. Writing in 1942 “To American Friends,” he wrote how, “You have given me a teacher in Thoreau, who furnished me through his essay on the ‘Duty of Civil Disobedience' scientific confirmation of what I was doing in South Africa.” For evidence on Thoreau's influence, see George Hendrick, “The Influence of Thoreau's ‘Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha,”
The New England Quarterly
29, no. 4 (December 1956): 462–471.

5
. Leo Tolstoy,
A Letter to a Hindu
, introduction by M. K. Gandhi (1909), available at
http://www.online-literature.com/tolstoy/2733
.

6
. These paragraphs draw on Judith M. Brown, “Gandhi and Civil Resistance in India, 1917–47: Key Issues,” in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash, eds.,
Civil Resistance & Power Politics: The Experience of Non-Violent Action from Gandhi to the Present
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 43–57.

7
. Sean Scalmer,
Gandhi in the West: The Mahatma and the Rise of Radical Protest
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 54, 57.

8
. “To the American Negro: A Message from Mahatma Gandhi,”
The Crisis
, July 1929, 225.

9
. Vijay Prashad, “Black Gandhi,”
Social Scientist
37, no. 1/2 (January/February 2009): 4–7, 45.

10
. Leonard A. Gordon, “Mahatma Gandhi's Dialogues with Americans,”
Economic and Political Weekly
37, no. 4 (January–February 2002): 337–352.

11
. Joseph Kip Kosek, “Richard Gregg, Mohandas Gandhi, and the Strategy of Nonviolence,”
The Journal of American History
91, no. 4 (March 2005): 1318–1348. Gregg published a number of books on nonviolence. The most influential was
The Power of Non-Violence
(London: James Clarke & Co., 1960). First published in 1934.

12
. Reinhold Neibuhr,
Moral Man and Immoral Society
(New York: Scribner, 1934).

13
. Described in James Farmer,
Lay Bare the Arms: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement
(New York: Arbor House, 1985), 106–107.

14
. On Muste's conversion from Marxism to Christian Pacifism, see Chapter 9 of Ira Chernus,
American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea
(New York: Orbis, 2004). Both Gregg and Niebuhr were members of FOR, although the latter's intellectual journey led him to leave.

15
. August Meierand and Elliott Rudwick,
CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 102–103.

16
. Ibid., 111.

17
. Krishnalal Shridharani,
War Without Violence: A Study of Gandhi's Method and Its Accomplishments
(New York: Harcourt Brace & Co., 1939). See James Farmer,
Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement
(New York: Arbor Books, 1985), 93–95, 112–113.

18
. Paula F. Pfeffer,
A. Philip Randolph. Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990).

19
. Jervis Anderson,
Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen
(NewYork: HarperCollins, 1997), 17.

20
. Adam Fairclough, “The Preachers and the People: The Origins and Early Years of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1955–1959,”
The Journal of Southern History
52, no. 3 (August 1986), 403–440.

21
. In his history of the movement, Garrow notes the comparison to Gandhi being made by a sympathetic white lady in a letter to a newspaper. David
Garrow,
Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1955–1968
(New York: W. Morrow, 1986), 28.

22
. Ibid., 43. Bo Wirmark, “Nonviolent Methods and the American Civil Rights Movement 1955–1965,”
Journal of Peace Research
11, no. 2 (1974): 115–132; Akinyele Umoja, “1964: The Beginning of the End of Nonviolence in the Mississippi Freedom Movement,”
Radical History Review
85 (Winter 2003): 201–226.

23
. Scalmer,
Gandhi in the West
, 180.

24
. The books referred to by King were: M. K. Gandhi,
An Autobiography; or, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, translated by Mahadev Desai
(Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1927); Louis Fischer,
The Life of Mahatma Gandhi
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1951); Henry David Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” 1849; Walter Rauschenbusch,
Christianity and the Social Crisis
(New York: Macmillan Press, 1908); Richard B. Gregg,
The Power of Non-Violence
; Ira Chernus,
American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 169–171. See James P. Hanigan,
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Foundations of Nonviolence
(Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984), 1–18.

25
. Taylor Branch,
Parting the Waters. America in the King Years, 1954–63
(New York: Touchstone, 1988), 55.

26
. Martin Luther King, “Our Struggle,”
Liberation
, April 1956, available at
http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/primarydocuments/Vol3/Apr-1956_OurStruggle.pdf
.

27
. Branch,
Parting the Waters
, 195.

28
. Garrow,
Bearing the Cross
:
Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1955–1968
, 111. One example: Gregg had written of the nonviolent resister: “Toward his opponent he is not aggressive physically, but his mind and emotions are active, wrestling constantly with the problem of persuading the latter that he is mistaken.” King wrote: “For while the nonviolent resister is passive in the sense that he is not physically aggressive toward his opponent, his mind and emotions are always active, constantly seeking to persuade his opponent that he is wrong.” Martin Luther King, Jr., “Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,” in
Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story
(New York: Harper & Bros., 1958), 102; Gregg,
The Power of Non-Violence
, 93.