SOS homophobie.
Rapport sur l’homophobie
. Paris, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002.
Thompson, Mark, ed.
The Long Road to Freedom: The Advocate History of the Gay and Lesbian Movement
. New York: St Martin’s, 1994.
Working for Lesbian and Gay Members.
Brussels: Public Services International and Education International, 1999.
—Associations; Discrimination; France; Politics; Violence.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Southeast Asia is a complex region of very diverse cultures, spanning eleven countries, each with their own highly varied traditions and ethnic groups. This region has for centuries been a cultural crossroads for a varied range of influences: Chinese, Indian, Muslim, Animist, Hindu, Buddhist, and more recently, Western and Christian. These influences were added on top of previous cultural traditions, though often without any real mixing, to the point where within even a single country the various social groups can have very different cultures.
Given that each country in this region was influenced differently by the influx of cultures, the degree and type of homophobia varies from country to country.
Islam
, for instance, is very strong in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei, but not in other countries where the Muslim community is far smaller. Thailand has never been colonized by Europeans, and this is undoubtedly why it has managed to escape a strong Puritanical influence. On the other hand, the Philippines spent almost 500 years under Spanish dominion, then American, and the majority of the population is Christian, at least officially. Yet in that country, there is no specific law against homosexuality. However, Singapore, Malaysia, and Myanmar (all countries colonized by the British) have laws explicitly targeting homosexuality, based on the Indian and Imperial British penal codes. The existence of these laws has contributed to the justification of state-approved homophobia, most notably in Singapore.
Insofar as homophobia is a cultural phenomenon, it is difficult to generalize about it in Southeast Asia, given that the region is not culturally homogenous. However, it is possible to examine the various cultures and the types of homophobia that each is susceptible to producing.
Indigenous Cultures
In the region there are many indigenous cultures; so again, it would be unfair to simply generalize. Nonetheless, certain common points can be seen in these cultures, especially when compared with the construction of homosexuality (and homophobia) in the Western world.
None of the principal languages of the region has a specific word for the terms “homosexual,” “gay,” and “lesbian,” which shows that homosexual orientation is not objectified like it is in the Western world. This is not to say that homosexual behavior is unknown in these cultures, but that they do not designate sexual orientation as a specific gender aspect, or as the basis of an identity. However, there are often social ramifications for homosexual behavior in these cultures, especially when it seems as though these actions are subverting masculine and feminine social norms.
In Thai culture, for example, it is very important that an individual fulfill his or her social role, and in doing so give him or herself a positive image. To the indigenous cultures, homosexual behavior is not bad in and of itself (contrary to Western cultures where it is often seen as sinful or
against nature
), but it is considered an inappropriate tendency, and of little benefit to a person’s social role.
Marriage
is an important part of this social role. Through their agrarian traditions, these cultures see children as an essential crutch for their old age. The Buddhist belief that every action has a consequence pushes people very strongly to conform to the norms, because they fear the ill effects of their own desires. Thai culture draws a large distinction between public image and private reality. Also inspired by
Buddhism
, Thai society tolerates private deviations from the public norms, and while indulgence may find a way to express itself, this does not indicate social acceptance. Despite the fact that there are few legal or institutional sanctions against homosexuality, in a culture that is ideally non-confrontational, the very fact of acting against the social expectations of others is enough to provoke harsh reactions. Those whose homosexual behavior was revealed would often experience a deep sense of
shame
and dishonor.
Though the languages of Southeast Asia have no indigenous word to designate homosexuality, they do have a rather large vocabulary to identify transgender people:
kathoey
in Thailand,
acault
in Myanmar,
bakla
in the Philippines,
bapok
and
pondan
in Malaysia, and
waria
and
banci
in Indonesia. Transgenders are completely visible, openly subverting social norms, yet they are seen in general as an implacable phenomenon and most of the indigenous cultures have grudgingly conceded their place in society. Albeit, a limited place: transgender people are marginalized, considered as inferiors, and assigned to very specific social roles. In the Philippines, for instance,
baklas
usually are found working in beauty salons, as maids, or vendors in the open-air markets. They are also found in the entertainment industry, as part of the sex trade, offering their services to heterosexual men. Interestingly, they are also given a specific place in the processionals of the
Catholic Church
. In Thailand, aside from these religious functions, the social niche occupied by the
kathoeys
is more or less the same. They appear from time to time on television, but not due to any social acceptance, but simply because of an occasional theatrical or comic interest.
Within these niches they are tolerated; however,
tolerance
should not be confused with acceptance. Any time people of the so-called “third sex” attempt to leave the confines of their traditional niches, they encounter serious resistance. In 1996, for example, despite winning the Thailand championship, a volleyball team with six
kathoey
players (which called itself “the Iron Ladies”) encountered a large amount of hostility when it was suggested they be recruited for the national Olympic team.
Chinese Communities
The waves of migration from
China
toward Southeast Asia have gone on for roughly the last 1,000 years, but have increased within the past century. In certain countries, especially Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam, these immigrants have been assimilated into the local population, adopting their languages and customs. The transition was made easier by religion: Buddhism in Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Myanmar, and
Christianity
, to which the Chinese in the Philippines soon converted. In traditionally Muslim countries, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chinese communities were a little more segregated. Whatever the case, whether more or less assimilated into the local populations, the Chinese still constitute distinct communities and make up a specific cultural group in Southeast Asia.
Chinese culture places a great importance on an individual’s duties and familial responsibilities. This is further reinforced by the hierarchical structure of the extended family, which leaves little room for personal decisions regarding lifestyle. Undoubtedly, the society’s patriarchal character makes matters of gender particularly strict. Nonetheless, the masculine ideal is not presented as some sort of swaggering machismo, but rather as an expression of wisdom, self-control, and sacrifice for family and social values. And the feminine ideal is based on respect for men and on the observation of familial virtues in the role of mother, grandmother, or wife.
Like many of the indigenous Southeast Asian cultures, the Chinese communities did not make sexual orientation a basis for identity. Originally, Chinese culture more or less tolerated homo-affective and homoerotic relationships, so long as marriage and progeny were assured. Marriages were traditionally arranged by the respective families; no one married for love, and no one expected men to stay monogamous. Those who had the means often had multiple lovers, and it did not matter whether one had an extramarital affair with a man or with a woman.
However, the region’s Chinese communities have since assimilated a few of the West’s sexophobic and homophobic attitudes. In fact, the era in which these migrations took place is not without importance. Many Chinese came to Southeast Asia during the Qing dynasty and the beginning of the Republic, bringing with them the habits of the time. Humiliated, Chinese society felt as though it was in decline, compared to Western technological and military might. The Chinese questioned and rejected a good number of traditional Confucian values, including the old tolerance of different sexualities, which were now considered to be a waste of spirit and energy. In lieu of this, the Chinese adopted more Puritan principles (which were more in line with contemporary Western views), and those who immigrated to Southeast Asia only saw these opinions reinforced by the influence of the European colonial regimes. Along with the Puritanism came a strong homophobic sentiment, rooted in Judeo-Christian traditions, though none of these communities (except for the Philippines) would couch it in biblical terms. Instead of calling homosexuality a
sin
, a
perversion
, or an illness, it is considered a failure to live up to one’s responsibilities. This kind of homophobia reprises the traditional themes of obedience to one’s
family
, the necessity of marriage and male descendants, and gender roles. But contrary to the old indifference,
heterosexism
and monogamy are now strict requirements.
Nonetheless, the first signs of a gay and lesbian awareness opposing this social homophobia have started to appear in the Chinese world, especially in Hong Kong and Taiwan. In China proper, many films exploring alternate sexualities have been produced. Little by little, these films and magazines are trickling into Southeast Asia, but their impact is undoubtedly limited to Singapore and Malaysia (where the Chinese language is still spoken currently). Having adopted the local languages in other regions, other Chinese communities are less likely to be aware of these evolutions.
Colonialism & Christianity
Thailand aside, most of Southeast Asia was under European or American control during the first half of the twentieth century, and some regions had been colonized long before. Even Thailand, though officially independent, sought to shape itself according to the Western mold. Even today, the cultural impact of this influence is apparent. The elite in Southeast Asia are generally more westernized than the rest of the population; though when it comes to sexuality, their culture is often made up of the habits and conceptions of a much older westernization. Those who, during the colonial era, had parents rich enough to send them to schools run by Christian missionaries, were usually steeped in the Western morals of the day. These ideas were then assimilated by the cultural elite and transmitted to the next generation.
Under these conditions, the sexual morals of the Southeast Asian elite often appear outdated, lingering over debates and values that had their day in the Western world thirty to fifty years ago. Contrary to how it was perceived in the indigenous and Chinese traditions, homosexuality is now objectified—though because of the lack of a visible gay culture, it is often confused with the phenomenon of transgenderism. Homo-affective and homoerotic behaviors are considered illegitimate and often seen through the medical lens of psychopathology. From the Western world, these elite have also inherited an aversion to physical contact between people of the same sex. The men of this class are notorious for refusing to shake hands with another man or lean on a man’s shoulder—habits that are quite common in the indigenous cultures, to whom they represent nothing more than friendship.
In Singapore, where the anti-sodomy laws promulgated by the British were kept after independence, the opinion of the elite makes itself clearly known by way of state-sponsored homophobia. The
media
and the
cinema
, in particular, are under close surveillance for the depiction of images that dare to portray homosexuality in a positive light.
Censorship
is far less severe for heteroerotic depictions than for homoerotic imagery, which risks being labeled as pornographic. In 1997, the administration rejected, without giving any reasons, a request to create a gay and lesbian association. In 2000, it rejected again a request for a public forum on homosexual issues. This time, the refusal included a justification: given that homosexual acts were forbidden by law, the forum could not be authorized. Also, sex education taught in Singapore presents homosexuality in a very negative way, thus perpetuating ignorance and homophobia.
In Malaysia, struggles between factions within the ruling party made for liberal use of these anti-sodomy laws. Anwar Ibrahim, once deputy prime minister, who was seen as a rival by Prime Minister Mahathir, was convicted of sodomy, then sent to
prison
. Many Malaysians saw this less as a sign of the reinforcement of state-sponsored homophobia, but more as a purely political maneuver—though it certainly did not improve the public perception of homosexuality. In Thailand in 1996-97, the Rajabhat Institutes Council (an institution managing thirty-six training establishments for teachers) wanted to exclude students “of deviant sex or gender.” Following public protests, the proposed law was finally abandoned. But the attempt itself clearly reveals the homophobia among the university elite, who are obviously far less understanding than the general population.
While Christianity was an import that accompanied European imperialism, it remains a religious minority, rarely making up more than 5% of the population with some exceptions: in Singapore, the number of Christians is closer to 15% of the total population, and ninety percent in the Philippines. In fact, Christianity is so deeply rooted in the Philippines that it has almost become an indigenous culture of its own, with its own specific rituals where the
baklas
have their role along with everyone else. Yet even in the Philippines, as in the rest of Southeast Asia, the more recent growth of Christianity is mostly linked to
Protestant
churches, many of whom practice a very conservative and literal form of the religion.