The Rational Animal: How Evolution Made Us Smarter Than We Think (34 page)

For more general introductions to evolutionary psychology, see Buss (2005), Confer et al.
(2010), Crawford and Krebs (2008), Dunbar and Barrett (2009), Gangestad and Simpson (2007), and Kenrick (2011).

Loss Aversion in Monkeys and Men

For the study of loss aversion in monkeys, see Lakshminarayanan, Chen, and Santos (2008).

For more on how monkeys and humans share the same decision biases, see Lakshminarayanan, Chen, and Santos (2011).

For more on human ancestral conditions, see Carroll (2009).

For more on the evolution of loss aversion in humans, see Li et al.
(2012) and Winterhalder (2007).

Proximate Versus Ultimate Reasons for Behavior

For the scientific origins of proximate and ultimate explanations in biology, see Tinbergen (1963).

For a more detailed discussion of proximate and ultimate explanations in humans, see Kenrick, Griskevicius, et al.
(2010) and Alcock (2013, ch.
10).

The Subconscious Influence of the Ovulatory Cycle

For the ovulation and spending study, see Durante et al.
(2011).

For the ovulation and stripping study, see Miller, Tybur, and Jordan (2007).

The Kennedys and the Biology of Risk

For the skateboarding study, see Ronay and von Hippel (2010).

For studies showing that the presence of a woman increases men’s risk taking at card games, see Baker and Maner (2008, 2009).

For the study showing men take more risks in the presence of an ovulating woman, see Miller and Maner (2011a).

For the study showing that smelling T-shirts worn by ovulating women increases men’s testosterone levels, see Miller and Maner (2010).

CHAPTER 2: THE SEVEN SUBSELVES

For more on the life of Martin Luther King Jr., see Branch’s (1988) Pulitzer Prize–winning account of the civil rights leader and his place in history.

Selves Within the Self

For the classic
The Three Faces of Eve
, see Thigpen and Cleckley (1957).

For good descriptions of the split-brain studies, see Gazzaniga (1985) and Sperry (1968).

For the book on our evolved psychological systems or modules, see Kurzban (2010).

For a more scientific analysis, see Barrett and Kurzban (2006).

Primed for Persuasion

For a general introduction to the idea of subselves, see Kenrick (2011).

For the advertising study, see Griskevicius et al.
(2009).

How Many Subselves Are There?

For more scientific detail on these subselves, see Kenrick, Li, and Butner (2003), Kenrick, Neuberg, et al.
(2010), Kenrick, Griskevicius, et al.
(2010), and Griskevicius and Kenrick (forthcoming).

For the touching study at the University of Groningen, see Gazzola et al.
(2012).

Self-Protection Subself: The Night Watchman

For more about the dangers of ancestral life, see Pinker (2011).

For statistics on crime and violence in modern times, see Federal Bureau of Investigation (2011).

For more on how a self-protection motive influences psychology and behavior, see Ackerman et al.
(2006), Becker et al.
(2007, 2010), Maner et al.
(2005), Neuberg, Kenrick, and Schaller (2011), Schaller, Park, and Mueller (2003), and Ohman and Mineka (2001).

For the car preferences study, see Griskevicius et al.
(2006).

Disease-Avoidance Subself: The Compulsive Hypochondriac

For more on the behavioral immune system, see Schaller and Park (2011).

For more on how a disease-avoidance motive influences psychology and behavior, see Ackerman et al.
(2009), Miller and Maner (2011b), Mortensen et al.
(2010), and Neuberg, Kenrick, and Schaller (2011).

For the pregnancy study, see Navarrete, Fessler, and Eng (2007).

Affiliation Subself: The Team Player

For the importance of friendship in hunter-gatherers, see Hill and Hurtado (1996).

For more on how the affiliation motive influences psychology and behavior, see Baumeister and Leary (1995), Maner, DeWall, et al.
(2007), and Mead et al.
(2011).

Status Subself: The Go-Getter

For more on the study of stress and dominance in baboons, see Sapolsky (2002).

For more on the benefits of status on human health, see Marmot (2004).

For more on status and luxury fever, see Frank (1999).

For the idea of gaining status via dominance versus prestige, see Henrich and Gil-White (2001) and Cheng et al.
(2013).

For the effects of status motives on aggression, see Griskevicius, Tybur, et al.
(2009).

Mate-Acquisition Subself: The Swinging Single

For more on how many human behaviors are related to mate acquisition, see Miller (2000).

For some research comparing mating preferences in homosexuals and heterosexuals, see Bailey et al.
(1994) and Kenrick et al.
(1995).
As discussed in Kenrick (2011), homosexuality raises some interesting puzzles from an evolutionary perspective, but male homosexual preferences paradoxically provide strong support for the two central ideas of this book: that the ultimate causes of our behavior are often not conscious and that the mind is organized in a modular fashion.
If male homosexuals were acting “rationally” in a traditional sense, they would seek partners their own age or perhaps follow society’s standards for what constitutes an attractive man (older with high status).
Instead, homosexual men are interested in young, physically attractive men, even when those men do not reciprocate their interest and even though these cues would be associated with women in the years of peak fertility rather than deemed stereotypically “masculine” characteristics.

For the car preferences study, see Griskevicius et al.
(2006).

Mate-Retention Subself: The Good Spouse

For more on marriage and parenting in humans, see Geary (2000).

For more on how mate-retention motives influence psychology and behavior, see Maner, Gailliot, et al.
(2007) and Maner et al.
(2009).

Kin-Care Subself: The Nurturing Parent

For more on parenting in traditional societies, see Geary (2000) and Hill and Hurtado (1996).

For how much it costs to raise children, see Lino (2010).

For more on how kin-care motives influence behavior, see Glocker et al.
(2009) and Hrdy (1999).

Remembering the Seven Subselves by Climbing the Developmental Pyramid

For more on the developmental pyramid, see Kenrick, Griskevicius, et al.
(2010).

Reversing Loss Aversion

For loss aversion as a specific numerical constant, see Thaler et al.
(1997).

For the study demonstrating how different fundamental motives reverse loss-aversion patterns, see Li et al.
(2012).

CHAPTER 3: HOME ECONOMICS VERSUS WALL STREET ECONOMICS

For more on Walt Disney, the Walt Disney Company, and Michael Eisner, see Stewart (2005) and Thomas (1976, 1998).

For more on the ideas presented in this chapter, see Kenrick, Sundie, and Kurzban (2008).

Playing Games

For the origins of the prisoner’s dilemma, see Rapaport and Chammah (1965).

For more on actual behavior in economic games, such as the ultimatum game, across cultures, see Henrich et al.
(2005) and Camerer (2003).

Home Economics: The Kinship Game

For the study on economic games with twins, see Segal and Hershberger (1999).

For more on twins, see Segal (2000) and Segal and Harris (2008).

For more on the principle of inclusive fitness (also known as
kin selection)
, see Hamilton (1964) and Burnstein, Crandall, and Kitayama, 1994.

For a discussion of selective altruism toward kin in ground squirrels, see Sherman (1981).
For a discussion of nepotism in white-fronted bee-eaters, see Emlen, Wrege, and Demong (1995).

For the family inheritance findings, see Smith, Kish, and Crawford (1987).

For findings on stepchildren and adopted children, see Daly and Wilson (1998).

Home Economics Versus Corporate Economics

For the evolutionary prisoner’s dilemma study, see Kenrick et al.
(2006) and Kenrick, Sundie, and Kurzban (2008).

For more on game theory and human evolution, see Hagen and Hammerstein (2006).

For more on sibling rivalry, see Trivers (1974).

Team Payoffs: The Affiliation Game

For Alan Fiske’s models of exchange, see Fiske (1992).

For more on the relationship between Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, see Isaacson (2011).

For more on “equality matching” and the evolution of reciprocal altruism, see Trivers (1971) and Axelrod and Hamilton (1981).

For more on the study about exchanging different types of rewards, see Foa and Foa (1980) and Turner, Foa, and Foa (1971).

Pyramid Play: The Status Game

For more on the evolution of leadership and followership, see Van Vugt, Hogan, and Kaiser (2008) and Van Vugt and Ahuja (2010).

For more on how people behave differently depending on whether they have high or low status, see Rucker, Galinsky, and Dubois (2012).

Foxhole Economics: The Self-Protection Game

For more on Genghis Khan and the city of Nishapur, see Weatherford (2005).

Is Market Economics Any Way to Run a Business?

For more information on Frederick Winslow Taylor, see Gabor (2000).

Bringing Home Economics to Wall Street

For the trust game study, see DeBruine (2002).

A Family Company

For more on family companies, see Nicholson (2008).

The quote about Southwest being like a family comes from Grubbs-West (2005).
For more on Southwest Airlines, see Smith (2004) and Freiberg and Freiberg (1996).

CHAPTER 4: SMOKE DETECTORS IN THE MIND

For more on the Zambia aid story, see Lewin (2007) and BBC News (2002).

Defective Brains
and
Does Adaptive = Accurate?

For a more detailed discussion of errors and biases from an evolutionary perspective, see Haselton et al.
(2009).

For auditory looming in humans, see Neuhoff (1998, 2001).
For auditory looming in rhesus monkeys, see Ghazanfar, Neuhoff, and Logothetis (2002).

Not All Errors Are Created Equal
and
Money Up in Smoke

For more on the smoke detector principle and human biases, see Haselton and Nettle (2006) and Nesse (2005).

The Behavioral Immune System: In the Mind of Your Disease-Avoidance Subself

For more on the behavioral immune system, see Schaller and Park (2011) and Schaller and Duncan (2007).

For the condom study, see Tybur et al.
(2011).

For the study on the behavioral and physical immune systems, see Schaller et al.
(2010).

Revisiting Zambian Aid and Mutant French Fries

For the story on McDonald’s pulling mutant french fries, see Martin (2000).

For more on the safety of genetically modified foods, see World Health Organization, “20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods.”

Sex Detectors: In the Mind of Men’s Mate-Acquisition Subselves

For more on sexual pheromones in moths, see Wyatt (2003).

For more on men’s sexual-overperception bias, see Haselton and Buss (2000) and Maner et al.
(2003).

Sexy Bad Boy Delusions: In the Mind of Women’s Mate-Acquisition Subselves

For how ovulation leads women to see sexy cads as good dads, see Durante, Griskevicius, Simpson, et al.
(2012).

Reason for Optimism: In the Mind of Your Status Subself

For more on Steve Jobs, see Isaacson (2011).

For further reading on overconfidence and better-than-average effects, see Alicke, Dunning, and Kruger (2005), Hoorens (1993), Larrick, Burson, and Soll (2007), Moore and Healy (2008), and Weinstein (1980).

For the study on the evolutionary basis of overconfidence, see Johnson and Fowler (2011).

For the study of overconfidence, competence, and leadership, see Anderson et al.
(2012).

Born to Be Biased

For data on beliefs about marriage, see Arnett and Schwab (2012).

CHAPTER 5: MODERN CAVEMEN

For more on the Shiwiar, see Sugiyama (2004a, 2004b).

For the Shiwiar and performance on logic tests, see Sugiyama, Tooby, and Cosmides (2002).

Logically Deficient Minds
and
Communicating on Our Natural Frequency

For medical errors, see Vohs and Frances Luce (2010).

For the “Linda problem,” see Tversky and Kahneman (1983).

Why Can’t Johnny Do the Math? and Communicating on Our Natural Frequency

For cancer study and natural frequencies, see Gigerenzer et al.
(2007).

Detecting Cheaters

For the workings of cheater detection, see Cosmides (1989) and Cosmides and Tooby (1992).

Erasing Errors by Engaging the Affiliation Subself

For the Asian disease problem, see Tversky and Kahneman (1981).

For the revised version of the disease problem, see Wang (1996a, 1996b).

How to Help Suicidal Turtles (and Irrational Humans)

For suicidal turtles, see Scott (2009).

CHAPTER 6: LIVING FAST AND DYING YOUNG

For more on MC Hammer, see Wikipedia, “MC Hammer.”

For the
Sports Illustrated
article, see Torre (2009).

For
The Millionaire Next Door
, see Stanley and Danko (1996).

Life History Theory

For more detailed discussions of life history theory, see Kenrick and Luce (2000), Kaplan and Gangestad (2005), Roff (2002), Stearns (1992), Hill and Kaplan (1999), and Chisholm (1993).

The Three Stages

For more on the three stages, see Kenrick, Griskevicius, et al.
(2010).

For risky behavior in the mating stage, see Wilson, Daly, and Pound (2002).