Authors: Matthew M. Aid
20. The two best sources for details of the U-2 program are Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach,
The CIA and the U-2 Program: 1954–1974
(Washington, DC: CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998); and Chris Pocock,
The U-2 Spyplane: Toward the Unknown:
A New History of the Early Years
(Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2000).
21. Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 1, p. 175.
22. SAPC 6081, memorandum, [deleted] to Project Director of Operations,
NSA Support for AQUA-TONE
, May 9, 1956, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP33-02415A000100100074-7, NA, CP. Quote from the “Cold War 101” chapter,
p. 49, of the Jack M. Gallimore home page at http://www.aipress.com/jackmem/.
23. Memorandum, ELINT Staff Officer to Special Assistant to the Director for Planning and Coordination,
Review of Implementation of CIA Responsibilities Under Technological Capabilities Panel
, July 11, 1957, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP61S00750A000400050014-6, NA, CP; NSA, 3/0/TALCOM/8-59,
Status of Siberian Air Defense District Installations as of
[deleted], December 1, 1959, p. 2, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T05439A000500070004-9, NA, CP; CHAL-0914,
Situation Estimate for Project Chalice: Fiscal Years 1961 and 1962
, March 14, 1960, pp. 1– 2, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP33-02415A000200420002-0, NA, CP; TCS-7519-60-b,
Accomplishments of the U-2 Program
, May 27, 1960, p. 6, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP33-02415A000100070007-5, NA, CP. See also Pedlow and Welzenbach,
CIA and the U-2
Program: 1954–1974
, p. 101; Pocock,
U-2 Spyplane
, p. 48.
24. Paul L. Allen, “Pusk Bad News for Spy Crews,”
Tucson Citizen
, November 23, 1998.
25. The story of the Powers shootdown has been extensively covered in a number of books and articles, such as Michael R. Beschloss,
Mayday
(New York: Harper and Row, 1986). For the Rus-sian version of the U-2 shootdown incident, see Anatoliy Lokuchaev, “Okhota
v Stratosfere,”
Aviatsiya i Kosmonavtika
, no. 4 (2000): p. 17.
26. For SIGINT identification of ICBM construction activity at Plesetsk, see
Utilization of Aerial Reconnaissance
to Determine the Status of the Soviet ICBM Threat
, September 8, 1959, p. 8, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP92B01090R002600270002-9, NA, CP; TCS No. 5819-59, Tab C,
USSR Targets for Highest Priority Collection
, 1959, p. 1, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP92B01090R002600270004-7, NA, CP; memorandum, Reber to Deputy Director
(Plans),
ARC Recommendations for Future Targets as of 14 April 1960
, April 14, 1960, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP61S00750A000600150007-1, NA, CP; Deployment Working Group of the Guided
Missiles and Astronautics Intelligence Committee,
Soviet Surface-to-
Surface Missile Deployment
, Tab I-P-1, October 1, 1962, p. 18, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T04757A000300010003-3, NA, CP; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 1, p. 175. For Norwegian detection of signals coming from Plesetsk, see Rolf Tamnes,
The United States
and the Cold War in the High North
(Oslo: ad Notam forlag AS, 1991), p. 135. For a description of the construction of the Plesetsk launch site based on Russian
materials, see Steven J. Zaloga,
Target America
(Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1993), pp. 150–51.
27. Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 1, p. 183.
28. CHAL-1088-60,
The Future of the Agency’s U-2 Capability
, July 16, 1960, p. 6, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP62B00844R000200160034-9, NA, CP; letter, Prettyman et al. to
Mc-Cone, February 27, 1962, p. 1, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000009451, http://www.foia.cia.gov; memorandum
for the record,
Board of Inquiry— Francis Gary Powers
, March 20, 1962, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80B01676R002200070001-2, NA, CP; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 1, p. 183; Beschloss,
Mayday
, pp. 30, 37, 356–57.
29. Letter, Prettyman et al. to McCone, February 27, 1962, p. 1, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000009451,
http://www.foia.cia.gov; memorandum, Blanchard to Director of Central Intelligence,
Technical Analysis of Powers U-2 Incident
, February 27, 1962, pp. 3–4, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80B01676R002200030001-6, NA, CP; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 1, p. 183.
30. Memorandum for the record,
Board of Inquiry— Francis Gary Powers
, March 20, 1962, p. 2, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80B01676R002200020001-7, NA, CP.
5: The Crisis Years
1. $654 million SIGINT bud get figure from
Memorandum of Discussion at the 473rd Meeting of the
National Security Council
, January 5, 1961, in U.S. Department of State,
Foreign Relations of the
United States, 1961–1963
, vol. 25,
Organization of Foreign Policy; Information Policy; United Nations;
Scientific Matters
(Washington, DC: GPO, 2001), located at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ kennedyjf/xxv/index.htm, NSA’s personnel figures
from Dr. Thomas R. Johnson,
American Cryptology
During the Cold War, 1945–1989
, bk. 2,
Centralization Wins, 1960–1972
(Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 1995), p. 293, NSA FOIA; U.S. House of Representatives, Appropriations Committee,
Military Construction Appropriations for 1964
, 85th Congress, 1st session, 1963, p. 487; U.S. Army Military History Institute, oral history,
Lt. General John J. Davis, USA
(Ret.)
, 1986, p. 136, U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, DC. CIA personnel and budget figures from report,
CIA Activity Inventory
, undated but circa 1963, p. 3, RG-263, entry 36, box 8, file 726, NA, CP.
2. Memorandum, Secretary of Defense to Executive Secretary, National Security Council, August 17, 1960, DDRS;
The Joint Study Group Report on Foreign Intelligence Activities of the United
States Government
, December 15, 1960, pp. 35–36, ASANSA, Matters Received Since January 1961, box 1, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene,
KS.
3. Frost background from “Vice Admiral Laurence H. Frost Is New Director,”
NSA Newsletter
, December 1, 1960, p. 2; “Admiral Laurence H. Frost, 74, Dies,”
NSA Newsletter
, June 1977, p. 4, both NSA FOIA; “Vice Adm. Laurence Frost, 74, Dies, Former National Security Agency Chief,”
Washington
Post
, May 26, 1977.
4. Interviews with Frank Rowlett, Louis Tordella, confidential sources; NSA OH-1983-14, oral history,
Interview of Dr. Howard Campaigne
, June 29, 1983, pp. 124–25, partially declassified and on file at the library of the National Cryptologic Museum, Fort Meade,
MD.
5. Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 2, p. 294.
6. After leaving B Group in 1964, Shinn served as the NSA representative on a number of interdepartmental committees, including
the Watch Committee. He died on December 11, 1968, at the age of fifty-eight. Shinn’s background from his obituary at
NSA Newsletter
, January 1969, p. 7, NSA FOIA.
7. William D. Gerhard,
In the Shadow of War (To the Gulf of Tonkin)
, Cryptologic History Series, Southeast Asia (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 1969), p. 29, NSA FOIA; Robert
J. Hanyok,
Spartans in Darkness: American SIGINT and the Indochina War, 1945–1975
, U.S. Cryptologic History, series 6, vol. 7 (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 2002), p. 73, NSA FOIA. For
information about the North Vietnamese direction of the Viet Cong insurgency derived from SIGINT, see SNIE 10-62,
Communist Objectives, Capabilities, and
Intentions in Southeast Asia
, annex: Communist North Vietnam’s Military Communications Nets and Command Structures in Laos and South Vietnam, February
21, 1962, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0001166399, http://www.foia.cia.gov; draft memorandum for the president,
Covert Operations Against North Vietnam
, attached to memorandum, McNamara to Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 3, 1963, RG-200, entry 13230A Records of Robert
S. McNamara, box 119, file Reading File January 1963, NA, CP.
8. Hanyok,
Spartans in Darkness
, pp. 146–47. For the switch to KTB, see David W. Gaddy, ed.,
Essential
Matters: A History of the Cryptographic Branch of the People’s Army of Viet-Nam, 1945–1975
(Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 1994), pp. 111–12. See also Seymour M. Hersh,
The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House
(New York: Summit Books, 1983), p. 74n; James L. Gilbert,
The Most Secret War: Army Signals Intelligence in Vietnam
(Fort Belvoir, VA: Military History Office, U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command, 2003), p. 18; Robert J. Hanyok, “Book
Review: James L. Gilbert, The Most Secret War: Army Signals Intelligence in Vietnam,”
Intelligence and National Security
, Summer 2004: p. 395.
9. Oral history,
Interview with Dr. Ray S. Cline
, May 21, 1983, p. 21, LBJL, Austin, TX.
10. Memorandum, Lansdale to O’Donnell,
Possible Courses of Action in Vietnam
, September 13, 1960, in
U.S. Department of Defense Pentagon Papers
, U.S. House of Representatives ed., 1971, pp. 1307– 09;
Memorandum of Conference with President Kennedy
, February 23, 1961, National Security Files, Chester V. Clifton Series, Conferences with the President, vol. I, JFKL, Boston,
MA;
Annual Historical
Report, 3rd Radio Research Unit, Fiscal Year 1961
, vol. 2, p. 8, INSCOM FOIA; Gerhard,
In
the Shadow
, p. 29; 509th Radio Research Group,
When the Tiger Stalks No More: The Vietnamiza-tion
of SIGINT: May 1961–June 1970
, 1970, pp. 5, 7, INSCOM FOIA.
11. Gerhard,
In the Shadow
, pp. 30–31; 509th Radio Research Group,
When the Tiger Stalks No
More: The Vietnamization of SIGINT: May 1961–June 1970
, 1970, pp. 6, 11, INSCOM FOIA; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 2, p. 502;
The Pentagon Papers
, Senator Gravel ed., vol. 2 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1975), pp. 641–42; John D. Bergen,
Military Communications: A Test for
Technology
(Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1986), p. 388.
12. HQ Third Radio Research Unit,
Annual Historical Report, 3rd Radio Research Unit, Fiscal Year
1961
, vol. 1, pp. 1–2, and vol. 2, p. 2, INSCOM FOIA;
Annual Historical Report, 3rd Radio Research
Unit, Fiscal Year 1962
, vol. 1, pp. 1–2, INSCOM FOIA;
Annual Historical Report, 3rd Radio Research
Unit, Fiscal Year 1963
, vol. 3, tab 28, INSCOM FOIA; Donald B. Oliver, “Deployment of the First ASA Unit to Vietnam,”
Cryptologic Spectrum
, vol. 10, nos. 3–4 (Fall/Winter 1991), NSA FOIA; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 2, p. 503. The stamp in the medical records is from Gilbert,
Most Secret War
, p. 7.
13. Gilbert,
Most Secret War
, p. 8.
14.
Report on General Taylor’s Mission to South Vietnam
, November 3, 1961, sec. 7, Intelligence, p. 3, National Security File, Country File: Vietnam, Report on Taylor Mission—November
1961, box 210, JFKL, Boston, MA; extract from memorandum #273, no subject, November 26, 1961, p. 9, Record #195503, Item #3671510005,
George J. Veith Collection, Vietnam Archive, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX;
Pentagon Papers
, Gravel ed., vol. 2, pp. 439, 656–57.
15. Memorandum, Helms to Director of Central Intelligence,
Meeting with the Attorney General of the
United States Concerning Cuba
, January 19, 1962, National Security Archive, Washington, DC; memorandum, Lansdale to Special Group (Augmented),
Review of Operation Mongoose
, July 25, 1962, National Security Archive, Washington, DC; Director of Central Intelligence,
Report to the
President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board on Intelligence Community Activities Relating to the
Cuban Arms Build-Up: 14 April Through 14 October 1962
, December 1962, p. 4, National Security Files: Countries: Cuba, box 61, JFKL, Boston, MA. For an excellent overall description
and collec-tion of declassified documents relating to Operation Mongoose, see Lawrence Chang and Peter Kornbluh, eds.,
The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: A National Security Archive Documents Reader
(New York: New Press, 1992).
16. JCSM-272-62, memorandum, Lemnitzer to Secretary of Defense, April 10, 1962, p. 1, National Security Archive, Washington,
DC.
17. Memorandum, Lansdale to Distribution List,
Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation
Mongoose
, January 18, 1962, RG-59, Central Decimal File, 737.00/1-2062, NA, CP; memorandum, Helms to Director of Central Intelligence,
Meeting with the Attorney General of the United
States Concerning Cuba
, January 19, 1962, National Security Archive, Washington, DC; memorandum, Tidwell to Deputy Director (Intelligence) and Deputy
Director (Plans),
Intelligence Support
on Cuba
, March 6, 1962, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0001161975, http://www.foia.cia.gov; memorandum for the record,
Brig. Gen. Lansdale,
Meeting with President,
16 March 1962
, March 16, 1962, National Security Archive, Washington, DC; Director of Central Intelligence,
Report to the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board on Intelligence
Community Activities Relating to the Cuban Arms Build-Up: 14 April Through 14 October 1962
, December 1962, pp. 4–5, National Security Files: Countries: Cuba, box 61, JFKL, Boston, MA; Johnson,
American Cryptology
, bk. 2, pp. 320, 322.
18. Moody’s background from memorandum, John D. Roth, U.S. Civil Ser vice Commission to Department and Agency Incentive Awards
Officers,
1971 Federal Woman’s Award
, February 2, 1971, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP84-00313R000100250007-7, NA, CP;
NSA
Newsletter
, March 1971, pp. 4–5;
NSA Newsletter
, April 1972, p. 5;
NSA Newsletter
, May–June 1974, p. 7;
NSA Newsletter
, January 1976, p. 10;
NSA Newsletter
, February 1977, p. 4, all NSA FOIA. For Moody taking command of NSA’s Cuban operations in July 1961, see Johnson, bk. 2,
American Cryptology
, p. 322.