23. Bradford Perkins, The Creation of a Republican Empire, 1776–1865 (Cambridge, Eng., 1993), 146.
24. The paintings are The Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga and The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown .
25. Gallatin quoted in Rutland, Presidency of Madison , 188; J.M.S. Careless, “Introduction” to Zaslow, ed., The Defended Border , 6.
26. See H. Adams, History , IX, 73.
27. John Quincy Adams, quoted in William Earl Weeks, Building the Continental Empire (Chicago, 1996), 29.
28. Donald Hickey, The War of 1812 (Urbana, Ill., 1989), 176, 306; James Horton and Lois Horton, In Hope of Liberty (New York, 1997), 184–85.
29. Madison and Monroe reaffirmed the instruction in October; Ketcham, Madison , 590. See also Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War , 392–95; Hickey, War of 1812 , 289.
30. See Hickey, War of 1812 , 194–95.
31. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War , 432.
32. Updyke, Diplomacy of the War of 1812 , 368–69; William Lowndes to Elizabeth Lowndes, Feb. 17, 1815, quoted in Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War , 500.
33. See C. P. Stacey, “The Myth of the Unguarded Frontier, 1815–1871,” AHR 56 (1950): 2–12; Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America, 1815–1908 (London, 1967), 33–52.
34. On the Northwest, see Richard White, The Middle Ground : Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991); on the Southwest, see L. Leitch Wright Jr., Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscolunge People (Lincoln, Neb., 1986).
35. The Red Sticks got the name from their red war clubs. See John Sugden, Tecumseh’s Last Stand (Norman, Okla., 1985); George F. G. Stanley, “The Indians in the War of 1812,” Canadian Historical Review 31 (1950): 145–65.
36. Wright, Creeks and Seminoles , 182. See also Frank Owsley Jr., The Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands (Gainesville, Fla., 1981).
37. John Bach McMaster, History of the People of the United States, from the Revolution to the Civil War (New York, 1895), IV, 171.
38. Treaty of Ghent as printed in Niles’ Weekly Register , Feb. 18, 1815, 397–400.
39. Remini, Jackson , I, 302–5; Wright, Creeks and Seminoles , 190; Weeks, Building the Continental Empire , 40.
40. Francis Paul Prucha, Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier (New York, 1969), 119–28; Willard Karl Klunder, Lewis Cass and the Politics of Moderation (Kent, Ohio, 1996), 20, 32–33; R. David Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet (Lincoln, Neb., 1983), 143–64.
41. William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton, 1986), 198–201, 210–11.
42. Michael Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York, 1975), 165. The texts of the treaties are in American State Papers: Indian Affairs (Washington, 1834), II, 1–150.
43. Wright, Creeks and Seminoles , 198–99; Joshua Giddings, The Exiles of Florida (Columbus, Ohio, 1858), 40–45; David Heidler and Jeanne Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Mechanicsburg, Pa., 1996), 62–75.
44. See H. Adams, History , IX, 63–70.
45. Less than $100,000 per victim in today’s money. For this and other monetary equivalents, I rely on John J. McCusker, How Much Is That in Real Money? (Worcester, Mass., 1992).
46. See Frederick Leiner, The End of Barbary Terror (Oxford, 2006); Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776–1815 (New York, 1995), 209–11; John B. Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algiers Under the Turks (New York, 1979), 149–50, 330–32; Glenn Tucker, Dawn like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth of the U.S. Navy (New York, 1963), 447–65.
47. James Madison, “Eighth Annual Message to Congress” (1816), Messages and Papers of the Presidents , I, 575; Ray Irwin, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with the Barbary Powers (New York, 1970), 176–86. During the First World War, the United States did not declare war on the Ottoman Empire.
48. Quoted in Dictionary of American Biography , ed. Allen Johnson and Dumas Malone (New York, 1931), III, 189.
49. Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, Jan. 6, 1817, Papers of Andrew Jackson , ed. Harold Moser et al. (Nashville, Tenn., 1994), IV, 82.
50. Gaillard Hunt, The Life of James Madison (New York, 1902), 299–300.
51. See Catherine Allgor, A Perfect Union: Dolley Madison and the Creation of the American Nation (New York, 2006).
52. Almost thirty years later, the Madisonian Platform was still endorsed: John Pendleton Kennedy, Defence of the Whigs, by a Member of the Twenty-Seventh Congress (New York, 1844), 12–24.
53. Presidential Messages , I, 562–69. Madison’s Seventh Annual Message to Congress has also been conveniently reprinted in Marvin Meyers, ed., The Mind of the Founder: Sources of the Political Thought of James Madison (Hanover, N.H., 1981), 279–306.
54. The Twentieth Amendment (ratified in 1933) moved the date for sessions of Congress forward by eleven months, so that they begin in January rather than December.
55. Young, Washington Community , 98–106.
56. George Dangerfield, The Awakening of American Nationalism (New York, 1965), 8–9; Norman K. Risjord, The Old Republicans (New York, 1965), 163–64; Rutland, Presidency of Madison , 194–95.
57. For example, House Federalists split 25 for, 23 against the tariff bill; 15 for, 38 against the Second Bank.
58. Confirmed by postmortem medical examination; see Michael O’Brien, Conjectures of Order (Chapel Hill, 2004), II, 669.
59. John Randolph, Feb. 29, 1816, Annals of Congress , 14th Cong., 1st sess., 1111.
60. See Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978); Robert Dawidoff, The Education of John Randolph (New York, 1979), 145–63.
61. On the difference between Hamilton and the Madisonian Republicans, see John Nelson, Liberty and Property: Political Economy and Policymaking in the New Nation (Baltimore, 1987); Andrew Shankman, “A New Thing on Earth,” JER 23 (2003): 323–52.
62. Letter to Benjamin Austin, Jan. 9, 1816, TJ: Writings , 1371.
63. For a provocative interpretation of Gallatin’s program, see Steven Watts, The Republic Reborn (Baltimore, 1987), 224–39.
64. Quoted in William Cabell Bruce, John Randolph of Roanoke (New York, 1922), II, 283.
65. Brant, Commander in Chief , 403; John Mayfield, The New Nation, 1800–1845 , rev. ed. (New York, 1982), 79; Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (New York, 1910), 18–19.
66. Calhoun, Annals of Congress , 14th Cong., 1st sess., 1329–36; Randolph, Jan. 31, 1816, ibid., 842; Dangerfield, Awakening of Nationalism , 15–16.
67. “If the votes of the two houses be combined, New England and the four middle states gave 44 votes for the Bank and 53 against it; and the southern and western states gave 58 for it and 30 against.” Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton, 1957), 240.
68. Nathaniel Macon to Joseph Nicholson, March 3, 1816, quoted in Risjord, Old Republicans , 167.
69. See Karl Raitz, ed., The National Road (Baltimore, 1996).
70. See McCusker, How Much Is That in Real Money?
71. As Calhoun argued. Annals of Congress , 14th Cong., 1st sess., 1183–84.
72. C. Edward Sheen, “The Compensation Act of 1816 and the Rise of Popular Politics,” JER 6 (Fall 1986): 253–74.
73. Annals of Congress , 14th Cong., 2nd sess., 854.
74. Presidential Messages , I, 561, 569–70; Annals of Congress , 15th Cong., 1st sess., 1371.
75. See John Lauritz Larson, “‘Bind the Republic Together’: The National Union and the Struggle for a System of Internal Improvements,” JAH 74 (1987): 363–87; Drew McCoy, The Last of the Fathers (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 92–103.