76. See John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement (Chapel Hill, 2001), 63–69.
77. Lynn W. Turner, “Elections of 1816 and 1820,” in History of American Presidential Elections, ed. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. et al., (New York, 1985), I, 299–311.
78. See Roger H. Brown, “Who Bungled the War of 1812?” Reviews in American History 19 (1992): 183–87.
79. Antiwar Federalists suffered repeated violence. In Baltimore a mob destroyed a press, killed two people, and badly injured several others, including the elderly Revolutionary hero “Light-Horse Harry” Lee, who never recovered from his beating (see Hickey, War of 1812 , 52–71)
1. Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (New York, 1971), 367–68.
2. Lynn W. Turner, “Elections of 1816 and 1820,” in History of American Presidential Elections , ed. Arthur Schlesinger Jr. et al. (New York, 1985), I, 311.
3. Contrasting estimates of his abilities are presented in Noble Cunningham Jr., The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), and George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (New York, 1952).
4. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, January 30, 1787, TJ: Writings , 886.
5. Presidential Messages , II, 4–10, quotations from 5 and 8.
6. Ibid., 10; Ammon, James Monroe , 371.
7. Boston Columbian Centinel [ sic ], July 12, 1817.
8. There are many books on this subject, including Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System (Berkeley, 1969); Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (Chapel Hill, 1969); and Paul Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern (Chapel Hill, 1992). Cato’s Letters , published anonymously in England in 1720–23 by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, were much admired in America for their political philosophy.
9. Washington, Messages and Papers of the Presidents , I, 205–16; Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party (Chapel Hill, 1984), esp. 124–30.
10. Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, Nov. 12, 1816, and James Monroe to Andrew Jackson, Dec. 14, 1816, Correspondence of AJ , II, 263–65, 266–70. Harry Ammon, “James Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings,” Virginia Magazine 66 (1958): 387–98.
11. For a sophisticated analysis of Monroe’s statecraft, see Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), 86–109.
12. Shaw Livermore, The Twilight of Federalism (Princeton, 1962); James H. Broussard, The Southern Federalists (Baton Rouge, 1978), 183–95.
13. This ideological tradition was weakening even among younger Federalists; see David Hackett Fischer, The Revolution of American Conservatism (New York, 1965).
14. James Morton Callahan, American Foreign Policy in Canadian Relations (New York, 1937), 90–102; Arthur L. Burt, The United States, Great Britain, and British North America (New York, 1961), 388–95; Stanley L. Falk, “Disarmament on the Great Lakes,” Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute 87 (1961): 69–73.
15. Reginald Stuart, United States Expansionism and British North America, 1775–1871 (Chapel Hill, 1988), 91; Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America, 1815–1908 (Berkeley, 1967), 3–33.
16. See Mark Kurlansky, Cod (New York, 1997), 101.
17. Burt, British North America , 399–426; Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812–1823 (Berkeley, 1964), 166, 260, 273.
18. See William Earl Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington, Ky., 1992), 21–36.
19. See Virginia Bergman Peters, The Florida Wars (Hamden, Conn., 1979), 27–45.
20. David Heidler and Jeanne Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Mechanicsburg, Pa., 1996), 94–108; Peters, Florida Wars , 49–50; Remini, Jackson , I, 345–46.
21. Calhoun to Gaines, Dec. 16, 1817, Correspondence of AJ , II, 342, n. 2; Ammon, James Monroe , 412–18; Weeks, Global Empire , 57–58, 64–69.
22. James Monroe to John C. Calhoun, January 30, 1818, The Papers of John C. Calhoun , ed. W. Edwin Hemphill (Columbia, S.C., 1963), II, 104.
23. AJ to James Monroe, January 6, 1818, Papers of Andrew Jackson , ed. Harold Moser et al. (Knoxville, Tenn., 1994), IV, 166–67.
24. Remini, Jackson , I, 347–49, quoting from the Papers of James Monroe in the New York Public Library. The suggestion regarding Monroe’s intention comes from James E. Lewis Jr., The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood (Chapel Hill, 1998), 247, n. 92.
25. Ammon, James Monroe , 416.
26. Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1956), 314. For an argument that the president was culpably negligent, see Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War , 119–21. For different viewpoints on what the Monroe administration intended, compare Remini, Jackson , I, 347–49, 366–68 with Ammon, James Monroe , 414–17, 421–25.
27. See George Chapman, Chief William McIntosh (Atlanta, 1988), 46–49.
28. Kenneth W. Porter, The Black Seminoles (Gainesville, Fla., 1996), 19–21; James W. Covington, The Seminoles of Florida (Gainesville, Fla., 1993), 43; J. Leitch Wright, Creeks and Seminoles (Lincoln, Neb., 1986), 204–6.
29. AJ to John C. Calhoun, April 8, 1818, Papers of Andrew Jackson , IV, 189–90.
30. AJ to John C. Calhoun, April 20, 1818, ibid., IV, 193–95; Covington, Seminoles , 45–46; Peters, Florida Wars , 51–53.
31. Frank Owsley Jr., “Ambrister and Arbuthnot,” JER 5 (1985): 289–308; Remini, Jackson , I, 357–59; AJ to John C. Calhoun, May 5, 1818, Papers of Andrew Jackson , IV, 199.
32. Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 144–46; Wright, Creeks and Seminoles , 205–7.
33. AJ to [Luis Piernas,] Commanding Officer of Pensacola, May 24, 1818, Papers of Andrew Jackson , II, 371; Heidler and Heidler, Old Hickory’s War, 169–76; Remini, Jackson , I, 362–65; “Proclamation on Taking Possession of Pensacola” (May 29, 1818), Correspondence of AJ , II, 374–75.
34. Remini, Jackson , I, 366; Ammon, James Monroe , 421, 424.
35. See Ammon, James Monroe , 421–23; Bemis, Foundations , 315–16; John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (Baton Rouge, 1988), 68–70.
36. Cunningham, Presidency of Monroe , 61–62; Washington National Intelligencer , July 27, 1818; James Monroe to AJ, July 19, 1818, Papers of Andrew Jackson , IV, 224–28, quotation from 225.
37. Ibid., 227; AJ to James Monroe, Aug. 19, 1818, ibid., 236–39. See also Skowronek, Politics Presidents Make , 95–97.
38. Presidential Messages , II, 31–32.
39. Merrill Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York, 1987), 55–56; Robert Remini, Henry Clay (New York, 1991), 162–68.
40. “Speech on the Seminole War” (Jan. 20, 1819), The Papers of Henry Clay , ed. James Hopkins (Lexington, Ky., 1961), II, 636–62.
41. Ibid., 659.
42. Richard W. Leopold, The Growth of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1961), 97. See also David S. Heidler, “The Politics of National Aggression: Congress and the First Seminole War,” JER 13 (1993): 501–30.
43. Annals of Congress , 15th Cong., 2nd sess., 867, quoted in Reginald C. Stuart, War and American Thought (Kent, Ohio, 1982), 176.
44. Weeks, Global Empire , 76–77; Dangerfield, Era of Good Feelings , 149–50; Wright, Creeks and Seminoles , 208.
45. John Q. Adams to George W. Erving, Nov. 28, 1818, American State Papers, Foreign Relations (Washington, 1834), IV, 539–45; Bemis, Foundations , 325–29; William Earl Weeks, Building the Continental Empire (Chicago, 1996), 45–47.
46. See Charles Carroll Griffin, The United States and the Disruption of the Spanish Empire (New York, 1937); Arthur Whitaker, The United States and the Independence of Latin America , 2nd ed. (New York, 1964); John Johnson, A Hemisphere Apart: The Foundations of United States Policy Toward Latin America (Baltimore, 1990).