13. See John G. West, The Politics of Revelation and Reason (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 84–129; James W. Fraser, Pedagogue for God’s Kingdom (Lanham, Md., 1985), 25–48.
14. Isabella and Thomas were children of Lyman’s second wife, Harriet Porter Beecher.
15. The best study of the family as a whole is Marie Caskey, Chariot of Fire: Religion and the Beecher Family (New Haven, 1977).
16. See Daniel Walker Howe, ed., Victorian America (Philadelphia, 1976).
17. Roxana Foote to Lyman Beecher, Sept. 1, 1798, quoted in Beecher, Autobiography , I, 56. See also Joseph Conforti, Samuel Hopkins and the New Divinity Movement (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1981).
18. Bruce Kuklick, Churchmen and Philosophers (New Haven, 1985), 94–111; Leo P. Hirrel, Children of Wrath: New School Calvinism and Antebellum Reform (Lexington, Ky., 1998), 26–40, 63–64; William R. Sutton, “The Influence of Nathaniel W. Taylor on Revivalism in the Second Great Awakening,” Religion and American Culture 2 (Winter 1992): 23–48.
19. Harding, Certain Magnificence , 101.
20. Autobiography , II, 414.
21. Charles Hambrick-Stowe, Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1996), 1–21; Charles G. Finney, Autobiography (Westwood, N.J., 1908; orig. pub. as Memoirs , 1876), 21–24.
22. One of the most influential books about Edwards and Whitefield, and still one of the best, was written by a scholarly evangelical clergyman of this generation: Joseph Tracy, The Great Awakening (Boston, 1842).
23. Charles G. Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion , ed. William G. McLoughlin (1835; Cambridge, Mass., 1960), 13–14.
24. Ibid. See also William G. McLoughlin, Modern Revivalism: Charles G. Finney to Billy Graham (New York, 1959).
25. Finney, Autobiography , 189.
26. Ibid., 178. On the role of women in organizing Finney’s revivals, see Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 81–98.
27. See Nancy Hardesty, Your Daughters Shall Prophesy: Revivalism and Feminism in the Age of Finney (Brooklyn, 1991). Leonard Sweet, The Minister’s Wife (Philadelphia, 1983), is a broader study than the title may suggest; on Lydia Finney, see 113–27, 159–72.
29. On his British trips, see Richard J. Carwardine, Transatlantic Revivalism (Westport, Conn., 1978).
30. Whitney R. Cross, The Burned-Over District (New York, 1950), 3; for Finney’s own use of the term “burnt district,” see his Autobiography , 78.
31. Hambrick-Stowe, Finney , 107. On the social characteristics of Finney’s converts, see also Paul E. Johnson, A Shopkeeper’s Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815–1837 (New York, 1978), partially corrected by Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , esp. 103; Curtis D. Johnson, Islands of Holiness: Rural Religion in Upstate New York, 1790–1860 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989).
32. Hambrick-Stowe, Finney , 142–62.
33. Benjamin P. Thomas, Theodore Dwight Weld (New Brunswick, N.J., 1950), 11–16, 70–88; Lawrence T. Lesick, The Lane Rebels (Metuchen, N.J., 1980), 132.
34. Finney, Autobiography , 333.
35. Ibid., 340–41.
36. Quoted in Hambrick-Stowe, Finney , 197.
37. T. Scott Miyakawa, Protestants and Pioneers (Chicago, 1964), 109–16; Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), 237.
38. Peter Cartwright, Autobiography , ed. Charles Wallis (1856; New York, 1956), 164.
39. See John H. Wigger, Taking Heaven by Storm: Methodism and the Rise of Popular Christianity in America (New York, 1998), 48–79, 98–103.
40. Russell Richey, Early American Methodism (Bloomington, 1991); Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992), 113.
41. Wigger, Taking Heaven by Storm , 96–97; Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity , 49–56.
42. Membership table in David Hempton, Methodism (New Haven, 2005), 212. See also Donald Matthews, “The Second Great Awakening as an Organizing Process,” American Quarterly 21 (1969): 23–43.
43. Wigger, Taking Heaven by Storm , 81–83.
44. Randy Sparks, On Jordan’s Stormy Banks: Evangelicalism in Mississippi, 1773–1876 (Athens, Ga., 1994), 66.
45. See, for example, Peter Cartwight’s Autobiography .
46. Charles Edward White, The Beauty of Holiness: Phoebe Palmer as Revivalist and Feminist (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1986).
47. Paul Conkin, The Uneasy Center: Reformed Christianity in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill, 1995), xii, 63–89; Richard B. Steele, “Gracious Affection” and “True Virtue” (Metuchen, N.J., 1994); Allen Guelzo, “Charles Grandison Finney and the New England Theology,” JER 17 (1997): 61–94.
48. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith , 270.
49. Wigger, Taking Heaven by Storm , 173–95.
50. See Gregory Willis, Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South (New York, 1997); Sparks, On Jordan’s Stormy Banks; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “The Antimission Movement in the Jacksonian South,” Journal of Southern History 36 (1970): 501–29.
51. Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity , 95–102.
52. For the sake of consistency, this includes children, although Baptists themselves count only those baptized after the age of discretion. See Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, “Estimating 19th-Century Church Membership,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 25 (1985): 185; Finke and Stark, Churching of America , 113.
53. Alexander Campbell, quoted in Edwin Scott Gaustad, Historical Atlas of Religion in America (New York, 1962), 64.
54. See David Harrell Jr., Quest for a Christian America (Nashville, Tenn., 1966); Richard Hughes and Leonard Allen, Illusions of Innocence: Protestant Primitivism in America (Chicago, 1988).
55. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 127–30, 199–202.
56. Albert J. Raboteau, A Fire in the Bones (Boston, 1995), 79–102; Allen is quoted in Carol George, Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Rise of Independent Black Churches (New York, 1973), 26.
57. See Frederick Cooper, “Elevating the Race,” American Quarterly 24 (1972), 604–25.
58. Albert Raboteau, Slave Religion (New York, 1978), 151–210; Donald Mathews, Religion in the Old South (Chicago, 1977), 185–236; Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974), 161–284. The term “invisible institution” was invented by the African American sociologist E. Franklin Frazier and has been widely used since his time.
59. Peter Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance (University Park, Pa., 1997), 25–37; John Lofton, Denmark Vesey’s Revolt (Kent, Ohio, 1983), 52–53.
60. Quoted in Sparks, On Jordan’s Stormy Banks , p. 28.
61. Mechal Sobel, Trabelin’ On: The Slave Journey to an Afro-Baptist Faith (Westport, Conn., 1979), 97–98, 140, 153, 160, 203; Raboteau, Slave Religion , 243–66; Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity , 146–61, quoting Allen’s hymn on 157–58.
62. A provocative commentary on the broad significance of this awakening is Perry Miller’s unfinished classic, The Life of the Mind in America from the Revolution to the Civil War (New York, 1965), 3–95.
63. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 270.
64. Finke and Stark, Churching of America , 16.
65. See James Bratt, ed., Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America (New Brunswick, N.J., 2006).
66. See Daniel Howe, Making the American Self (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 114–17.
67. Randolph Roth, The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont (Cambridge, Eng., 1987); Johnson, Islands of Holiness ; Sparks, On Jordan’s Stormy Banks .