68. Hambrick-Stowe, Finney , 53–54. The role of employers in promoting Finney’s revival is emphasized in Johnson, Shopkeeper’s Millennium .
69. William R. Sutton, Journeymen for Jesus: Evangelical Artisans Confront Capitalism in Jacksonian Baltimore (University Park, Pa., 1998); David G. Hackett, The Rude Hand of Innovation: Religion and Social Order in Albany (New York, 1991), 90–99, 119–21, 156; Roth, Democratic Dilemma , 300–302.
70. Jama Lazerow, Religion and the Working Class in Antebellum America (Washington, 1995); Teresa Anne Murphy, Ten Hours’ Labor: Religion, Reform, and Gender in Early New England (Ithaca, N.Y., 1992).
71. See Mark Noll, ed., God and Mammon: Protestants, Money, and the Market (New York, 2002); Kenneth Startup, The Root of All Evil: Protestant Clergy and the Economic Mind of the Old South (Athens, Ga., 1997).
72. Jarena Lee, Religious Experience and Journal (Philadelphia, 1836, 1849), has been reprinted in Spiritual Narratives , ed. Sue Houchins (New York, 1988), 1–97.
73. Catherine A. Brekus, “Harriet Livermore, the Pilgrim Stranger,” Church History 65 (1996): 389–404. See further the readings in Elizabeth B. Clark, “Women and Religion in America, 1780–1870,” Church and State in America , ed. John F. Wilson (New York, 1986), I, 365–413.
74. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith , 283; Hackett, Rude Hand of Innovation , 141–44; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , 77–81; Johnson, Islands of Holiness , 53–66.
75. Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood (New Haven, 1977), 126–59, quotation from 141; Carroll Smith Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City (Ithaca, N.Y., 1971), 97–124; Nancy Hewitt, Women’s Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1984), esp. 228; Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class , 210–81.
76. Peter Wosh, Spreading the Word: The Bible Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Paul Gujahr, An American Bible (Stanford, 1999); Anne Boylan, Sunday School (New Haven, 1988).
77. Lori Ginzburg, Women and the Work of Benevolence (New Haven, 1990); Kathleen D. McCarthy, American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society (Chicago, 2003), 50–54, 81–82.
78. See Lois Banner, “Religious Benevolence as Social Control: A Critique,” JAH 60 (1973): 34–41; Martin Wiener, ed., “Humanitarianism or Control?” Rice University Studies 67 (1981): 1–84; Daniel Howe, “The Evangelical Movement and Political Culture,” JAH 77 (1991): 1216–39.
79. Robert Baird, Religion in the United States of America (New York, 1969, rpt. from the 1844 ed.), 612–13.
80. Statistics from Noll, America’s God , 201: in 1840, only 2.9 letters per person per year, but six Methodist sermons heard per person per year.
81. Richard Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America (New Haven, 1993), 44.
82. Lydia Maria Child, “An Anecdote of Elias Hicks,” Liberty Bell (Boston, 1839), 65–68.
83. Quotations from Robert Doherty, The Hicksite Separation (New Brunswick, N.J., 1967), 28. On Hicks, see also H. Larry Ingle, Quakers in Conflict (Knoxville, Tenn., 1986), 39–47.
84. Ingle, Quakers in Conflict , 3–15; Thomas Hamm, The Transformation of American Quakerism (Bloomington, 1988), 15–28.
85. Thomas Hamm, The Quakers in America (New York, 2003), 42–43.
86. See Brooks Holifield, Theology in America (New Haven, 2003), 320–27.
87. Jay Dolan, In Search of an American Catholicism (New York, 2002), 22–25.
88. David Gleeson, The Irish in the South (Chapel Hill, 2001), 77–80; Charles Morris, American Catholic (New York, 1997), viii. For more on Bishop England, see Patrick Carey, An Immigrant Bishop (Yonkers, N.Y., 1982).
89. Jay Dolan, Catholic Revivalism (Notre Dame, 1978); Dale Light, Rome and the New Republic (Notre Dame, 1996), 248–49; Ann Taves, The Household Faith: Roman Catholic Devotions in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America (Notre Dame, 1986).
90. See Patrick Carey, People, Priests, and Prelates (Notre Dame, 1987); on Philadelphia, Light, Rome and the New Republic .
91. See Martin Meenagh, “John J. Hughes, First Archbishop of New York” (D. Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 2003), quotation from 55; Lawrence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York, 1986), 48–79; Kevin Kenney, The American Irish (Edinburgh, 2000), 72–116.
92. Finke and Stark, Churching of America , 110–15.
93. Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven, 1972), 471.
1. Quoted in James F. Hopkins, “Election of 1824,” in History of American Presidential Elections , ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (New York, 1985), 363.
2. See Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams (Berkeley, 1964), 275–77.
3. See Chase Mooney, William H. Crawford (Lexington, Ky., 1974), 213–48; James S. Chase, Emergence of the Presidential Nominating Convention (Urbana, Ill., 1973), 48–50.
4. See John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (Baton Rouge, 1988), 75–88, 93–101; John Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government (Chapel Hill, 2001), 127–28.
5. Melba Porter Hay, “Election of 1824,” in Running for President , ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (New York, 1994), I, 77–99; Daniel Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979), 44–45.
6. See Merrill Peterson, The Great Triumvirate: Webster, Clay, and Calhoun (New York, 1987), 116–31.
7. Quoted in Michael Heale, The Presidential Quest (London, 1982), 55.
8. For sympathetic insight into Jackson’s appeal, see Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution (New York, 1991), 174–81; Robert Remini, Jackson , II, 71–75.
9. See Robert Remini, Jackson , I, 409–17.
10. This intrigue is unraveled in Charles Sellers, “Jackson Men with Feet of Clay,” AHR 62 (1957): 537–51.
11. Noble Cunningham, “The Jeffersonian Republican Party,” in History of U.S. Political Parties , ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (New York, 1973), 268–71; Chase, Presidential Nominating Convention , 41–50.
12. See Noble Cunningham, The Presidency of James Monroe (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 126–30.
13. The most conspicuous exceptions to this rule were Stephen A. Douglas in 1860 and William Jennings Bryan in 1896; neither was an incumbent.
14. The Letters of Wyoming to the People of the United States (Philadelphia, 1824).
15. Remini, Jackson , II, 81.
16. The figures given in Robert Remini, Henry Clay (New York, 1991), 249.
17. Calculated by Robert Forbes, “Slavery and the Meaning of America” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1994), 499.
18. See Peterson, Great Triumvirate , 148.
19. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Containing Portions of His Diary , ed. Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia, 1874–77), VI, 464–65; Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Union (New York, 1956), 40–41; Remini, Henry Clay , 255–58.
20. Robert Seager II, “Henry Clay and the Politics of Compromise and Non-Compromise,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 85 (1987): 8.
21. John Adams to John Quincy Adams, Feb. 18, 1825, Memoirs of JQA , VI, 504.
22. Crawford himself would have considered Adams the lesser evil to Jackson. Mooney, William H. Crawford , 295. On Crawford’s chances as a compromise candidate, see Thomas Jefferson to Richard Rush, June 5, 1824, Writings of Thomas Jefferson , ed. John Leicester Ford (New York, 1899), X, 304–5.
23. Peterson, Great Triumvirate , 129.
24. There was a disputed election resolved by a special commission in 1876, a disputed election resolved by the Supreme Court in 2000, and one other case, in 1888, when the winner of the popular vote did not win the electoral vote.
25. See Donald Ratcliffe, The Politics of Long Division: The Birth of the Second Party System in Ohio, 1818–1828 (Columbus, Ohio, 2000), esp. p. 331.
26. Andrew Jackson to William B. Lewis, Feb. 14, 1825, Correspondence of AJ , III, 276. On whether there had been an explicit agreement, see Remini, Henry Clay , 258; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution (New York, 1991), 199.