81. Joseph Story, Discourse as Dane Professor of Law in Harvard University (Cambridge, Mass. 1829), 6. Even in Louisiana, the common law came to predominate in the long run; Mark Fernandez, From Chaos to Continuity: The Evolution of Louisiana’s Judicial System, 1712–1862 (Baton Rouge, 2001).
82. Morton Horwitz, “The Emergence of an Instrumental Conception of American Law,” Perspectives in American History 5 (1971): 287–326; William Novak, The People’s Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill, 1996), 9, 44.
83. Willson v. Blackbird Creek Marsh Company , 27 U.S. (2 Peters) 245 (1829); New York v. Miln, 36 U.S. (11 Peters) 102 (1837); License Cases , 46 U.S. (5 Howard) 504 (1847).
84. See Leonard Levy, The Law of the Commonwealth and Chief Justice Shaw (Cambridge, Mass., 1957); William Nelson, Americanization of the Common Law , 2nd ed. (Athens, Ga., 1994).
85. Richard D. Brown, Knowledge Is Power (New York, 1989), 294.
86. Evan Cornog, The Birth of Empire: DeWitt Clinton and the American Experience (New York, 1998), 135; Steven Siry, DeWitt Clinton and the American Political Economy (New York, 1990), 255–71; Craig Hanyan and Mary Hanyan, DeWitt Clinton and the Rise of the People’s Men (Montreal, 1996), 94–99.
87. Kathleen McCarthy, American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society (Chicago, 2003), 88–90, quotation from Clinton on 90.
88. Cornog, Birth of Empire , 143; Siry, DeWitt Clinton , 239.
89. Kent’s speech is reprinted in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Democracy, Liberty, Property: The State Constitutional Conventions of the 1820s (Indianapolis, 1966), 190–97.
90. The view that the constitutional convention witnessed the triumph of Bucktail democracy over Clintonian aristocracy is presented in Dixon Ryan Fox, The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York (New York, 1919), 264–68, and repeated, albeit with significant qualifications, in Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy (New York, 2005), 189–96. More persuasive analyses are those of Alvin Kass, Politics in New York State, 1800–1830 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1965), 81–89; and Donald Cole, Martin Van Buren (Princeton, 1984), 66–82.
91. Hanyan and Hanyan, DeWitt Clinton , 13–14.
92. The legislature had distributed New York’s electoral vote thus: Adams 25, Clay 7, Crawford 4. When the electors met, Van Buren managed to detach three votes from Clay. See Cole, Van Buren , 136–37.
93. Autobiography of Martin Van Buren , ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, 1920), 152; Stephen Van Rensselaer to DeWitt Clinton, March 10, 1825, quoted in William Fink, “Stephen Van Rensselaer and the House Election of 1825,” New York History 32 (1951):323–30. See also Shaw Livermore, The Twilight of Federalism (Princeton, 1962), 180–81.
94. Bartlett, Calhoun , 138.
95. Michael [ sic ] Chevalier, Society, Manners, and Politics in the United States , trans. T. G. Bradford (Boston, 1839), quotations from 208–10.
1. Lyman Butterfield, “The Fourth of July, 1826,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 61 (1953), 117–40; Merrill Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (New York, 1960), 3–4; James Morton Smith, The Republic of Letters (New York, 1995), III, 1973–74.
2. John Quincy Adams, “Inaugural Address,” Presidential Messages , II, 294, 296; Daniel Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979), 44–50.
3. OED , VII, 118; Daniel Howe, Making the American Self (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 123; Allen Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1999), 43–49. See also Nicholas Marshall, “The Power of Culture and Tangible Improvements,” American Nineteenth-Century History 8 (207: 1–26.
4. Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Union (New York, 1956) is still unsurpassed; for this episode, see 121.
5. John Quincy Adams, “Report on Manufactures,” U.S. Congress, Register of Debates , 22nd Cong., 1st sess. (1833), VIII, pt. III, 83.
6. Lyman Butterfield, “Tending a Dragon Killer,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 118 (1974): 165–78; Jack Shepherd, Cannibals of the Heart (New York, 1980), 259–69.
7. Presidential Messages , II, 299.
8. Ibid., 296, 297. See Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party (Chapel Hill, 1984), 130–36.
9. Shaw Livermore, The Twilight of Federalism (Princeton, 1962), 187–94.
10. Mary Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (Lawrence, Kans., 1985), 43–47.
11. See Bernard Bailyn, Origins of American Politics (New York, 1968), chap. 2.
12. There is a good account of the speech in Merrill Peterson, The Great Triumvirate (New York, 1987), 140–41.
13. On the frequency of dueling in this period, see Joyce Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 41–45.
14. See Andrew Burstein, America’s Jubilee (New York, 2001), 181–204; Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery (Princeton, 1996), 53–65; Robert Dawidoff, The Education of John Randolph (New York, 1979), 255–59.
15. No other vice president has exercised this power. In 1823, the Senate had delegated the right to its “presiding officer,” who at the time was its president pro tempore in the absence of Vice President Tompkins. Calhoun, when he took up his duties as vice president, appointed the Senate committees. Restive at having a nonsenator possess this power, the Senate later in the session resumed control over its own committees.
16. John Quincy Adams, Memoirs , ed. Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia, 1874–79), V, 361.
17. Ibid., VI, 506–7.
18. David Robertson, Denmark Vesey (New York, 1999), 108–16; Philip Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” Journal of Southern History 1 (1935): 3–28.
19. Quotation from John Larson, Internal Improvement (Chapel Hill, 2001), 176. See also William Freehling, Prelude to Civil War (New York, 1966), 89–122; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution (New York, 1991), 143–45.
20. Calhoun used the pen name “Onslow”; the defender of the administration was Philip Fendall, writing as “Patrick Henry.” Many contemporaries assumed “Patrick Henry” was the president himself. See Irving Bartlett, John C. Calhoun (New York, 1993), 132–35.
21. John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (Baton Rouge, 1988), 118.
22. Robert Forbes, “Slavery and the Meaning of America” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1994), 486–88.
23. Although the Constitution directs that the president “shall from time to time give to the Congress information on the state of the union,” in the antebellum years people referred simply to the President’s “annual message.”
24. Annals of Congress , 14th Cong., 2nd sess., 854. Also see above, p. 87.
25. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations , ed. R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner (Indianapolis, 1981), II, 723.
26. John Quincy Adams, “First Annual Message,” Presidential Messages , II, 299–317, quotation from 305; Daniel Feller, The Public Lands in Jacksonian Politics (Madison, Wisc., 1984), 56, 76.
27. See also Daniel Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979), 43–68.
28. “First Annual Message,” quotations from 316. Adams’s message is well analyzed by John Larson, “Liberty by Design,” in The State and Economic Knowledge , ed. Mary Furner and Barry Supple (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 73–102.
29. See John Quincy Adams, Memoirs , VII, 58, 63.
30. See Joseph Harrison, “ Sic et Non : Thomas Jefferson and Internal Improvements,” JER 7 (1987): 335–50.
31. Larson, Internal Improvement , 67–68, 149–50, 165–66; William Appleman Williams, Contours of American History (Cleveland, 1961), 211.
32. Memoirs , VIII, 49–50.
33. Richard R. John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 64–111.
34. Niven, Calhoun , 111; Bartlett, Calhoun , 95–98; Lynn Parsons, “John Quincy Adams and the American Indian,” New England Quarterly 46 (Sept. 1973): 352.
35. Benjamin Griffith, McIntosh and Weatherford, Creek Indian Leaders (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1988), 234–52; Lynn Parsons, John Quincy Adams (Madison, Wisc., 1998), 182; Michael Green, The Politics of Indian Removal (Lincoln, Neb., 1982), 125.