36. Bartlett, Calhoun , 130; Bemis, Adams , 76–77; Forbes, “Slavery and the Meaning of America,” 470–79.
37. See Piero Gleijeses, “The Limits of Sympathy,” Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (1992): 481–505.
38. Hargreaves, Presidency of Adams , 91–112; George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (New York, 1952), 367–81.
39. See Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), 110–28.
40. Floyd Miller, The Search for a Black Nationality (Urbana, Ill., 1975), 21–44; Lamin Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 88–98.
41. Jefferson to John Holmes, April 22, 1820, TJ: Writings , 1434.
42. Douglas Egerton, “A New Look at the American Colonization Society,” JER 5 (1985): 463–80.
43. Many such cases of masters, mistresses, and slaves are described in Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution (Gainesville, Fla., 2005).
44. See Thomas Jefferson to Jared Sparks, Feb. 4, 1824, TJ: Writings, 1484–87.
45. See Katherine Harris, African and American Values: Liberia and West Africa (London, 1985); William Freehling, The Reintegration of American History (New York, 1994), 138–57.
46. See Simon Schama, Rough Crossings (London, 2005).
47. Some of this support had actually lacked congressional authority; see Douglas Egerton, “Averting a Crisis,” Civil War History 43 (1997), 142–56.
48. James Wesley Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom (Lanham, Md., 1987); Amos Beyan, The American Colonization Society and the Creation of the Liberian State (Lanham, Md., 1991); Antonio McDaniel, Swing Low, Sweet Chariot: The Mortality Cost of Colonizing Liberia (Chicago, 1995), 60.
49. James Horton and Lois Horton, In Hope of Liberty (New York, 1997), 189–91. Terry Alford, Prince Among Slaves (New York, 1977), treats the name Abdul Rahahman used by contemporaries as a form of Ibrahima (Abraham).
50. See Gary Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 233–45; Donald Wright, African Americans in the Early Republic (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1993), 171–78; Mary Frances Berry and John Blassingame, Long Memory: The Black Experience in America (New York, 1982), 400.
51. “Speech Before American Colonization Society” (Jan. 20, 1825), Papers of Henry Clay , ed. Mary Hargreaves and James Hopkins (Lexington, Ky., 1981), VI, 83–97; David Brion Davis, “Reconsidering the Colonization Movement,” Intellectual History Newsletter 14 (1992): 13, n. 1.
52. See Richard H. Brown, “The Missouri Crisis, Slavery, and the Politics of Jacksonianism,” South Atlantic Quarterly 65 (1966), 66–67.
53. Freehling, Secessionists at Bay , 157–61; Egerton, “Averting a Crisis.”
54. See, for example, Elizabeth Varon, “Evangelical Womanhood and the African Colonization Movement,” in Religion and the Antebellum Debate over Slavery , ed. John McKivigan and Mitchell Snay (Athens, Ga., 1998), 169–95.
55. Wright, African Americans , 136; Robin Winks, The Blacks in Canada , 2nd ed. (Montreal, 1997), 233–40.
56. Quoted in John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweninger, Runaway Slaves (New York, 1999), 294–95.
57. Paul Goodman, Towards a Christian Republic: Antimasonry and the Great Transition in New England (New York, 1988), 4; Ronald Formisano and Kathleen Kutalowski, “Antimasonry and Masonry,” American Quarterly 39 (1977): 139–65.
58. Steven Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood (Chapel Hill, 1996), 277–79, 313–16, quotation from 278; Illustrations of Masonry, by One of the Fraternity (New York, 1827).
59. Michael Holt, Political Parties and American Political Development (Baton Rouge, 1992), 90–94; Donald Ratcliffe, “Antimasonry and Partisanship in Greater New England,” JER 15 (1995): 199–239.
60. Goodman, Toward a Christian Republic , 245.
61. For more on the Antimasonic Party, see Ronald Formisano, The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s (New York, 1983), 197–221.
62. See Kathleen Kutalowski, “Antimasonry Reexamined,” JAH 71 (1984): 269–93.
63. On Van Buren, see Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System (Berkeley, 1969); for the Antimasonic Party, see Robert O. Rupp, “Antimasonry in New York Reconsidered,” JER 8 (1988): 253–79.
64. Daniel Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago, 1979), 123–49; Clay quotation from Stephen Aron, How the West Was Lost (Baltimore, 1996), 134.
65. See Maurice Baxter, Henry Clay and the American System (Lexington, Ky., 1995).
66. “Speech on the Tariff,” March 30–31, 1824, Papers of Henry Clay , ed. James Hopkins (Lexington, Ky., 1963), III, 683–730.
67. On this use of the term “American System,” see Robert Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (New York, 1991), 174–75.
68. Richard Edwards, “Economic Sophistication in Nineteenth-Century Congressional Tariff Debates,” Journal of Economic History 30 (1970): 802–38; James Huston, “Virtue, Equality, and the General Welfare in the Tariff Debates of the 1820s,” JER 14 (1994): 523–48.
69. Robert Remini, Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party (New York, 1959), 134–36; Sellers, Market Revolution , 293.
70. Randall Miller, “Slavery in Antebellum Southern Textile Mills,” Business History Review 55 (1981), 471–90; Carole Scott, “Why the Cotton Textile Industry Did Not Develop in the South Sooner,” Agricultural History 68 (1994): 105–21.
71. Mark Bils, “Tariff Protection and Production in the Early U.S. Cotton Textile Industry,” Journal of Economic History 44 (1984): 1033–45; Knick Harley, “International Competitiveness of the Antebellum American Cotton Textile Industry,” ibid. 52 (1992): 559–84.
72. John James, “Welfare Effects of the Antebellum Tariff,” Explorations in Economic History 15 (1978): 231–46, esp. 249; Knick Harley, “The Antebellum American Tariff,” ibid. 29 (1992): 375–400.
73. This is the characterization of the historian who has studied the passage of the act most thoroughly, Robert Remini ( Henry Clay , 329). Many contemporaries and later historians were reluctant to believe that Van Buren could really have intended the Tariff of Abominations to pass, but Remini has proved he did ( Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party , 170–85).
74. Sample election documents are reprinted in Arthur Schlesinger Jr., History of American Presidential Elections (New York, 1985), II, 437–91.
75. On the transition in the method of electing presidents, see Michael Heale, The Presidential Quest, 1787–1852 (London, 1982).
76. AJ to James Hamilton Jr., June 29, 1828, Papers of Andrew Jackson , ed. Harold Moser et al. (Knoxville, Tenn., 2002), VI, 476–77.
77. Pointed out by Harry Watson, Liberty and Power (New York, 1990), 93.
78. See John William Ward, Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age (New York, 1955).
79. Robert Remini, The Election of 1828 (Philadelphia, 1963), 156.
80. Norma Basch, “Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828,” JAH 80 (1993): 890–918; Remini, Jackson, I , 64–67.
81. Michael Birkner, “The General, the Secretary, and the President,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 42 (1983): 243–53.
82. Edwin Miles, “President Adams’ Billiard Table,” New England Quarterly 45 (1972): 31–43; Ezra Stiles Ely, The Duty of Christian Freemen to Elect Christian Magistrates (Philadelphia, 1828).
83. Remini, Election of 1828 , 153.
84. The classic analysis of this letter is Richard H. Brown, “The Missouri Crisis, Slavery, and the Politics of Jacksonianism,” South Atlantic Quarterly 65 (1966): 55–72. The letter itself is in Martin Van Buren Papers (Library of Congress microfilm), ser. 2, reel 7, rpt. in Robert Remini, ed., The Age of Jackson (New York, 1972), 3–7.
85. Voter participation figures are given at www.multied.com/elections/1828.html (viewed March 1, 2007).
86. See Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System (Chapel Hill, 1966).
87. For careful analyses of the election of 1828, see Richard R. John, “Affairs of Office,” in The Democratic Experiment , ed. Meg Jacobs et al. (Princeton, 2003), 50–85; and Lee Benson, Toward the Scientific Study of History (Philadelphia, 1972), 40–50.