Authors: Lawrence Freedman
2
. Gordon Wood, “History Lessons,”
New York Review of Books
, March 29, 1984, p. 8 (Review of Barbara Tuchman's
March of Folly
).
3
. Speech to the National Defense Executive Reserve Conference in Washington, DC, November 14, 1957, in
Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957
(National Archives and Records Service, Government Printing Office), p. 818. He then observed “the very definition of âemergency' is that it is unexpected, therefore it is not going to happen the way you are planning.”
4
. Hew Strachan, “The Lost Meaning of Strategy,”
Survival
47, no. 3 (2005): 34.
5
. Timothy Crawford, “Preventing Enemy Coalitions: How Wedge Strategies Shape Power Politics,”
International Security
35, no. 4 (Spring 2011): 189.
6
. Jon T. Sumida, “The Clausewitz Problem,”
Army History
(Fall 2009), 17â21.
7
. Isaiah Berlin, “On Political Judgment,”
New York Review of Books
(October 3, 1996).
8
. Bruce Kuklick,
Blind Oracles: Intellectuals and War from Kennan to Kissinger
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 16.
9
. Hannah Arendt,
The Human Condition
, 2nd revised edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 200. First published 1958.
10
. Steven Lukes,
Power: A Radical View
(London: Macmillan, 1974).
11
. Charles Tilly, “The Trouble with Stories,” in
Stories, Identities, and Social Change
(New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 25â42.
12
. Naomi Lamoreaux, “Reframing the Past: Thoughts About Business Leadership and Decision Making Under Certainty,”
Enterprise and Society
2 (December 2001): 632â659.
13
. Daniel M. G. Raff, “How to Do Things with Time,”
Enterprise and Society
14, no. 3 (forthcoming, September 2013).
14
. Daniel Kahneman,
Thinking Fast and Slow
, 199, 200â201 206, 259 (see chap. 38, n. 44).
15
. Nassim Taleb,
The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable
(New York: Random House, 2007), 8.
16
. Joseph Davis, ed.,
Stories of Change: Narrative and Social Movements
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2002).
17
. Francesca Polletta,
It Was Like a Fever
, see Chapter 27, n. 1, 166.
18
. Joseph Davis, ed.,
Stories of Change: Narrative and Social Movements
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2002).
19
. Dennis Gioia and Peter P. Poole, “Scripts in Organizational Behavior,”
Academy of Management Review
9, no. 3 (1984): 449â459; Ian Donald and David Canter, “Intentionality and Fatality During the King's Cross Underground Fire,”
European Journal of Social Psychology
22 (1992): 203â218.
20
. R. P. Abelson, “Psychological Status of the Script Concept,”
American Psychologist
36 (1981): 715â729.
21
. Avner Offer, “Going to War in 1914: A Matter of Honor?”
Politics and Society
23, no. 2 (1995): 213â241. Richard Herrmann and Michael Fischerkeller also introduce the idea of “strategic scripts” in their “Beyond the Enemy
Image and Spiral Model: Cognitive-Strategic Research After the Cold War,”
International Organization
49, no. 3 (Summer 1995): 415â450. Their use is, however, different with scripts considered as “hypothetical structures that offer a means to organize the totality of foreign policy behavior.” Another approach is that offered by James C. Scott,
Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992). Scott describes how subordinate groups critique the “public transcript” promoted by the dominant group by surreptitiously developing a critique in the form of “hidden transcripts.” He thus takes familiar arguments about paradigms, formulas, myths, and false consciousness and challenges them by suggesting that subordinate groups are not so easily duped.
22
. Jerome Bruner, “The Narrative Construction of Reality,”
Critical Inquiry
, 1991, 4â5, 34.
23
. Christopher Fenton and Ann Langley, “Strategy as Practice and the Narrative Turn,”
Organization Studies
32, no. 9 (2011): 1171â1196; G. Shaw, R. Brown, and P. Bromiley, “Strategic Stories: How 3M Is Rewriting Business Planning,”
Harvard Business Review
(MayâJune 1998), 41â50.
24
. Valérie-Inès de la Ville and Elèonore Mounand, “A Narrative Approach to Strategy as Practice: Strategy-making from Texts and Narratives,” in Damon Golskorkhi, et al. eds.,
Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice
(see chap. 35, n. 29), 13.
25
. David Barry and Michael Elmes, “Strategy Retold: Toward a Narrative View of Strategic Discourse,”
The Academy of Management Review
22, no. 2 (April 1997): 437, 430, 432â433.
26
. Robert McKee,
Story, Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of Screenwriting
(London: Methuen, 1997).
27
. Aristotle,
Poetics
,
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html
.
28
. Laton McCartney,
The Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country
(New York: Random House, 2008).
29
. Although the first senator to come out for Roosevelt and the New Deal, by 1939 he was known as a vigorous isolationist and for accusations that Jews in Hollywood were using the influence of the movies to stir up prowar fervor. He denied Japan's hostile intent in the weeks before Pearl Harbor. This background led him to have a later literary incarnation, as Charles Lindbergh's vice president in Philip Roth's
The Plot Against America
(New York: Random House, 2004).
30
. Michael Kazin,
American Dreamers
(see chap. 25, n. 51), 187; Charles Lindblom and John A. Hall, “Frank Capra Meets John Doe: Anti-politics in American National Identity,” in Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie, eds.,
Cinema and Nation
(New York: Routledge, 2000). See also Joseph McBride,
Frank Capra
(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2011).
31
. This self-regulating body for upholding proper moral standards in film was largely about sexual conduct, but Breen also imposed political censorship, for example preventing anti-Nazi films being made, at least until 1938.
32
. Richard Maltby,
Hollywood Cinema
(Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 278â279.
33
. Eric Smoodin, “âCompulsory' Viewing for Every Citizen: Mr. Smith and the Rhetoric of Reception,”
Cinema Journal
35, no. 2 (Winter 1996): 3â23.
34
. Frances Fitzgerald,
Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 27â37.
35
. The original script can be found at
http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/MrSmithGoesToWashington.txt
.
36
. Michael P. Rogin and Kathleen Moran, “Mr. Capra Goes to Washington,”
Representations
, no. 84 (Autumn 2003): 213â248.
37
. Christopher Booker,
The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories
(New York: Continuum, 2004).
Abernathy, Ralph,
363
Abernathy, William,
528
Addams, Jane
Du Bois and,
351
Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) and,
354
First World War and,
316
Progressivism and,
313
Aeneid, The
(Virgil),
22
,
24
â
25
,
42
Agnew, Spiro,
441
air power, theories of,
125
â
128
,
131
,
138
,
158
,
208
Albany (Georgia, US),
362
â
363
Alexander I (Tsar of Russia),
78
â
80
,
101
,
143
Alexander II (Tsar of Russia),
266
,
277
Ali, Mohammed,
393
Alinsky, Saul
biography of,
378
Catholic Church and,
380
Chávez and,
387
community organizing and,
379
â
385
,
387
â
389
Democratic presidential candidates and,
455
Industrial Areas Foundation and,
381
Lewis and,
381
rules for radicals and,
382
â
383
,
408
Allenby, Edmund,
182
America Can be Saved
(Falwell),
444
American Civil War,
109
â
112
,
262
American Federation of Labor,
381
,
386
American War of Independence,
178
,
232
anarchism
Bakunin and,
251
,
269
â
273
,
276
,
287
â
288
,
392
Conrad's depiction of,
278
Luxemburg and,
288
political strikes and,
287
â
288
reluctance to take power and,
280
Spain and,
279
syndicalism and,
279
Tolstoy on,
310
Andrews, Kenneth,
499
â
500
,
521
Ansoff, Igor,
498
,
500
â
504
,
519
,
521
,
539
ants,
6
Arab rebellion (1916),
181
â
182
Arab Spring (2011),
230
â
231
,
412
Arab-Israeli War (1973),
199
Archidamus,
33
Aristotle,
623
armored warfare, theories of,
129
â
132
Arms and Influence
(Schelling),
166
â
167
Armstrong, Helen,
558
Aron, Raymond,
xv
Arrow, Kenneth,
577
Art of Manipulation, The
(Riker),
588
Art of War, The
(Machiavelli),
51
Art of War, The
(Sun Tzu),
44
â
45
,
509
â
510
.
See also
Sun Tzu, strategic theories of
Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers (ALAM),
479
At
Ä
,
29
Athos, Tony,
545
Atlanta Compromise,
350
atomic weapons.
See
nuclear weapons
Attila the Hun,
506
attrition warfare
Boyd on,
199
compared to maneuver warfare,
201
,
206
,
209
,
242
Delbrück on,
108
â
109
,
180
,
204
,
289
,
332
Liddell Hart and,
138
Luttwack on,
203
negotiations and,
243
Atwater, Lee
Machiavellian approach of,
445