The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman Republic (41 page)

14.
Adrian Goldsworthy,
Cannae
(London: Cassell, 2004), p. 63; Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, pp. 42–3.

15.
Lazenby,
Hannibal’s War
, p. 4.

16.
Scullard,
A History of the Roman World
, p. 127.

17.
William V. Harris,
War and Imperialism in Republican Rome: 327–70 B.C
. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1979), chs. 1 and 2; John Rich, “The Origins of the Second Punic War,” in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds.,
The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, pp
. 18–9.

18.
Daly,
Cannae
, p. 57.

19.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, p. 40.

20.
Scullard,
A History of the Roman World
, p. 80.

21.
E. S. Staveley,
Historia
, vol. 5 (1956), p. 101ff.

22.
Theodore A. Dodge,
Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 BC, with a Detailed Account of the Second Punic War
(London: Greenhill Books, 1994), p. 42.

23.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars, p. 45
.

24.
See for example Scullard,
A History of the Roman World
, pp. 365–6.

25.
Grossman,
On Killing, pp
. 120–3.

26.
James Grout, “Gladiators,”
Encyclopaedia Romana
(
penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/
gladiators.html
).

27.
J. E. Lendon,
Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 176.

28.
Scullard,
A History of the Roman World
, pp. 146–9.

29.
B. W. Jones, “Rome’s Relationship with Carthage: A Study of Aggression,”
The Classical Bulletin
, vol. 9 (1972), p. 28.

30.
Goldsworthy,
The Roman Army at War, p
. 109.

31.
E. Badian,
Foreign Clientelae (254–70 B.C.)
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp. 6–7, 154.

32.
Scullard,
A History of the Roman World, p
. 363.

33.
Goldsworthy,
Cannae
, pp. 49–50.

34.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, p. 45.

35.
Samuels, “The Reality of Cannae,” pp. 11, 23–4.

36.
Oakley, “Single Combat in the Roman Republic,” p. 403.

37.
Lendon,
Soldiers and Ghosts, p
. 177–8.

38.
Sallust,
Bellum Catilinae (51.38);
op. cit. Alexander Zhmodikov, “The Roman Heavy Infantrymen in Battle,”
Historia
, vol. 49, no. 1 (2000), pp. 72–4.

39.
Duncan Head,
Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 to 146 BC
(Goring-by-Sea, UK: Wargames Research Group, 1982), p. 157.

40.
M. C. Bishop and J. C. Coulston,
Roman Military Equipment
(London: Batsford, 1993), p. 50.

41.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, p. 47.

42.
Livy 31.34.4–6 describes graphically the nature of such wounds inflicted during the Second Macedonian War: “When they had seen bodies chopped to pieces by the Spanish sword, arms torn away, shoulders and all, or heads separated from bodies … or vitals laid open … they realized in a general panic with what weapons, and what men they had to fight.”

43.
Flavius Vegetius Renatus, “The Military Institutions of the Romans,” in
The Roots of Strategy
(Harrisburg, Penn., 1940), pp. 85–6 (1.12).

44.
See Goldsworthy,
Cannae
, pp. 135–7.

45.
Peter Connolly,
Greece and Rome at War
(revised ed.) (London: Greenhill Books, 1998), p. 131; Bishop and Coulston,
Roman Military Equipment
, pp. 58–9.

46.
Daly,
Cannae
, p. 68; Polybius (6.23.13).

47.
Daly,
Cannae
, pp. 64–70.

48.
Philip Sabin, “The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War,” in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds.,
The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p
. 74.

49.
Samuels, “The Reality of Cannae,” p. 15.

50.
Delbrück,
Warfare in Antiquity, pp
. 274–5.

51.
Carl von Clausewitz put it at twenty minutes, while J.F.C. Fuller reduced it to fifteen. Goldsworthy,
The Roman Army at War
, p. 224.

52.
F. E. Adcock,
The Roman Art of War Under the Republic
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940), pp. 8–12; Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars, pp
. 53–4.

53.
See for example Daly,
Cannae
, p. 62, fig. 2.

54.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, pp. 51–2.

55.
Ibid., p. 49; Daly,
Cannae
, p. 78. Polybius in particular has nothing to say on this matter.

56.
Emilio Gabba,
Republican Rome, the Army, and the Allies
, transl. P. J. Cuff (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), pp. 5–6; Samuels, “The Reality of Cannae,” p. 12; Lawrence Keppie,
The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire
(London: Batsford, 1998), p. 33.

57.
Daly,
Cannae, p
. 73; Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars, pp
. 48.

58.
Livy, 22.37.7–9.

59.
Samuels, “The Reality of Cannae,” p. 13.

60.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, p. 48.

61.
Goldsworthy,
The Roman Army at War
, p. 125.

62.
Goldsworthy,
Cannae
, p. 49.

63.
Ann Hyland,
Equus: The Horse in the Roman World
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 88–9.

64.
Dodge,
Hannibal
, pp. 63–4.

65.
Goldsworthy,
The Roman Army at War, p
. 110.

66.
See Polybius 6, 27–35; Edward Luttwak,
The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third
(Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 55.

67.
Goldsworthy,
The Roman Army at War
, p. 113.

68.
Ibid., p. 112.

69.
Polybius 6.35.4; Daly,
Cannae, pp
. 133–4.

70.
This reconstruction largely taken from Goldsworthy,
Cannae
, p. 82; Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, pp. 56–7; Samuels, “The Reality of Cannae,” p. 15. See also Polybius, 3.72, 113, 6.31; Livy 34.46, 44.36.

CHAPTER III: CARTHAGE

1.
Daly,
Cannae
, p. 132.

2.
F. N. Pryce, in H. H. Scullard,
A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC
, fourth edition (London: Routledge, 1980), pp. 163–4.

3.
Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard,
Daily Life in Carthage at the Time of Hannibal
, transl. A. E. Foster (New York: Macmillan, 1961), pp. 154–5.

4.
Lancel,
Carthage
, p. 111.

5.
Ibid., p. 205.

6.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars
, p. 27.

7.
Lancel,
Carthage
, p. 43.

8.
C. R. Whittaker, “Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries,” in P.D.A. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, eds.
Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 59.

9.
Charles-Picard,
Daily Life in Carthage
, p. 60.

10.
Whittaker, “Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries,” p. 68.

11.
See for example Charles-Picard, pp. 83–4; B. D. Hoyos, “Hannibal’s War: Illusions and Ironies,”
Ancient History
, vol. 19 (1989), p. 88; see B. D. Hoyos, “Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics, 237–218 BC,”
Rheinisches Museum für Philologie
, vol. 137 (1994), pp. 265–6 for a summary of the second line of argumentation.

12.
Goldsworthy,
The Punic Wars, p
. 29.

13.
Charles-Picard,
Daily Life in Carthage
, pp. 111, 116; Hoyos, “Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics,” p. 267.

14.
Ricardo first articulated comparative advantage in his book
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
, in AD 1817.