The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (109 page)

30.
Whether the Portuguese government itself benefited so much is more doubtful: see M. Newitt, “Plunder and the Rewards of Office in the Portuguese Empire,” in M. Duffy (ed.),
The Military Revolution and the State 1500–1800
(Exeter Studies in History, Exeter, 1980), pp. 10–28;. and W. Reinhard,
Geschichte der europäischen Expansion
, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1983), ch. 3 and 5.

31.
Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, p. 170; C. H. Haring,
The Spanish Empire in America
(New York, 1947); Parry,
Spanish Seaborne Empire
, passim; Scammell,
World Encompassed
, ch. 6; C. Gibson,
Spain in America
(New York, 1966).

32.
Wallerstein,
Modern World System
. See also Jones,
European Miracle
, ch. 4; Parry,
Age of Reconnaissance
, pt. 3; Roberts,
History of the World
, pp. 600ff;
Cambridge Economic History of Europe
, vol. 4,
The Economy of Expanding Europe in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
(Cambridge, 1967), passim. A sensible warning against
anticipating
a real “world system” is contained in R. A. Dodgshon, “A Spatial Perspective,”
Peasant Studies
, vol. 6, no. 1 (January 1977), pp. 8–19.

33.
For the beginnings of this challenge to the Iberian trading monopoly overseas, see
NCMH
, vol. 1, ch. 16, and vol. 3, ch. 17; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, ch. 4; Scammell,
World Encompassed
, ch. 7 and 9.

34.
K. Mendelsohn,
Science and Western Domination
(London, 1976), passim; Nef,
War and Human Progress
, ch. 3; Elton,
Reformation Europe
, pp. 292ff; McNeill,
Rise of the West
, pp. 592–98; Cipolla (ed.),
Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 2, ch. 3; A. Wolf,
A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
(New York, 1935).

35.
Jones,
European Miracle
, pp. 170–71 and passim; and cf. A. G. Frank,
World Accumulation 1492–1789
(New York/London, 1978), pp. 137ff.

36.
See again Mendelsohn,
Science and Western Domination
, which stresses the importance of scientific observation and prediction; and McNeill,
Rise of the West
, pp. 593–99.

1.
C. Oman,
A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century
(London, 1937), p. 3. For the earlier wars, see idem,
A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, 2
vols. (London, 1924).

2.
See the warning about this in G. R. Elton,
Reformation Europe 1517–1559
(London, 1963), pp. 305ff.

3.
Ibid., p. 35.

4.
R. A. Stradling,
Europe and the Decline of Spain: A Study of the Spanish System, 1580–1720
(London/Boston, 1981), p. 44.

5.
For example, Gattinara’s declaration to Charles V that “God has set you on the path towards a world monarchy,” quoted in
NCMH
, vol. 2, pp. 301ff.; and the quotations in H. Kamen,
Spain 1469–1714
(London, 1983), p. 67.

6.
Oman,
War in the Sixteenth Century
, p. 5. This book remains the best
military
narrative for this period. Useful succinct accounts of these 140 years are in the three relevant volumes of
Fontana History of Europe:
G. R. Elton,
Reformation Europe 1517–1559
(London, 1963); J. H. Elliott,
Europe Divided 1559–1598
(London, 1968); and G. Parker,
Europe in Crisis 1598–1648
(London, 1979). See also
NCMH
, vols. 2–5; and H. G. Koenigsberger,
The Habsburgs and Europe 1516–1660
(Ithaca/London, 1971).

7.
NCMH
, vol. 2, ch. 11 and 17.

8.
V. S. Mamatey,
Rise of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1815
(Huntingdon, N.Y., 1978 edn.), p. 9.

9.
Details in Oman,
War in the Sixteenth Century
, pp. 703ff; Braudel,
Mediterranean World
, vol. 2, pp. 904–1237.

10.
H. C. Koenigsberger, “Western Europe and the Power of Spain,” in
NCMH
, vol. 3, pp. 234–318; G. Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands 1559–1659
(London, 1979), passim; C. Wilson,
The Transformation of Europe 1558–1648
(London, 1976), chs. 8–9.

11.
The international nature of the rivalry is well covered in Parker, “The Dutch Revolt and the Polarization of International Politics,” in
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 74ff; and, for a more economic/social interpretation, J. V. Polisensky,
The Thirty Years War
(London, 1971), espec. ch. 4.

12.
C. V. Wedgewood,
The Thirty Years War
(London, 1964 edn.), chs. 3–6.

13.
Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, p. 252; J. H. Elliott,
The Count-Duke of Olivares
(New Haven, Conn., 1986), p. 495.

14.
Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 54–77; C. R. Boxer,
The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800
(London, 1972), pp. 25–26.

15.
For the final years of conflict, see Stradling,
Europe and the Decline of Spain
, chs. 2–4; J. Stoye,
Europe Unfolding 1648–1688
(London, 1969), chs. 3–4.

16.
Apart from specific works cited in the notes below, this section has been much influenced by a number of excellent studies of Spanish imperial power, namely: J. H. Elliott,
Imperial Spain 1469–1716
(Harmondsworth, Mddsx., 1970); J. Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs, 2
vols. (Oxford, 1964 and 1969); Stradling,
Europe and the Decline of Spain
, passim. Also used were two older works, R. Trevor Davies,
The Golden Century of Spain 1501–1621
(London, 1937); and B. Chudoba,
Spain and the Empire 1519–1643
(New York, 1969 edn.). Finally, there is John Elliott’s thoughtful article, reproduced in Cipolla (ed.),
Economic Decline of Empires
, as “The Decline of Spain,” pp. 168–95.

17.
Koenigsberger,
Habsburgs and Europe
, p. xi.

18.
R. Ehrenberg,
Das Zeitalter der Fugger: Geldkapital und Creditverkehr im 16. Jahrhundert, 2
vols. (Jena, 1896); E. Samhaber,
Merchants Make History
(London, 1963), ch. 8; and see the broad recent survey by G. Parker, “The Emergence of Modern Finance in Europe 1500–1730,” in Cipolla (ed.),
Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 2, pp. 527–89.

19.
NCMH
, vol. 1, ch. 7; R. A. Kann,
A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1918
(Berkeley/Los Angeles/London, 1974), chs. 1–2.

20.
Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 1, p. 77.

21.
M. Roberts, “The Military Revolution, 1560–1660,” in Roberts,
Essays in Swedish History
(London, 1967), pp. 195–225; G. Parker, “ ‘The Military Revolution,
1560–1660’—a Myth?” in Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 86–105; M. van Creveld,
Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton
(Cambridge, 1977), pp. 5–6; J. R. Hale, “Armies, Navies, and the Art of War,” in
NCMH
, vol. 2, pp. 481–509, and vol. 3, pp. 171–208; McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, ch. 4; R. Bean, “War and the Birth of the Nation State,”
Journal of Economic History
, vol. 33 (1973), pp. 203–21.

22.
G. Parker,
The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries War
(Cambridge, 1972), p. 6.

23.
I.A.A. Thompson,
War and Government in Habsburg Spain 1560–1620
(London, 1976), p. 16; more generally, see Reynolds,
Command of the Sea
, chs. 4–6.

24.
Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 1, pp. 53–58.

25.
Ibid., p. 128. See also Parker,
Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road
, ch. 6.

26.
Braudel,
Mediterranean World
, vol. 2, p. 841; and, for a full breakdown, Parker, “Lepanto (1571): the Costs of Victory,” in
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 122–34.

27.
NCMH
, vol. 3, pp. 275ff.; Parker, “Why Did the Dutch Revolt Last So Long?”, and “Mutiny and Discontent in the Spanish Army of Flanders 1572–1607,” in
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 45–64, 106–21.

28.
Thompson,
War and Government in Habsburg Spain
, ch. 3.

29.
Ibid., pp. 36ff, 89ff; Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 2, pp. 30ff.

30.
For further details, see J. Regla, “Spain and Her Empire,” in
NCMH
, vol. 5, pp. 319–83; Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 2, chs. 4–5; Elliott,
Imperial Spain
, ch. 10; Stradling,
Europe and the Decline of Spain
, chs. 3–5; but see also Kamen,
Spain 1469–1714
, arguing for a later “recovery.”

31.
See the interesting remarks of Braudel about the disadvantages facing the two “overlarge” empires of Spain and Islam, in
Mediterranean World
, vol. 2, pp. 701–03.

32.
The fluctuations of Spanish effort from one theater to another are nicely charted in Parker, “Spain, Her Enemies and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1559–1648,” in
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 17–42.

33.
Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 1, p. 347.

34.
Ibid., vol. 2, p. 70.

35.
E. Heischmann,
Die Anfänge des stehenden Heeres in Oesterreich
(Vienna, 1925).

36.
NCMH
, vol. 5, chs. 18 and 20; Kann,
History of the Habsburg Empire
.

37.
See the excellent analysis of the war in the Netherlands in Duffy,
Siege Warfare
, ch. 4.

38.
Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 185, 188.

39.
Idem,
Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road
, pp. 50ff.

40.
NCMH
, vol. 3, p. 308.

41.
Cited in Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, p. 238.

42.
Ibid., p. 239.

43.
For what follows, see Kamen,
Spain 1469–1714
, pp. 81ff, 161ff, 214ff; H. G. Koenigsberger, “The Empire of Charles V in Europe,” in
NCMH
, vol. 2, pp. 301–33; and the extended version in Koenigsberger,
Habsburgs and Europe
, passim.

44.
H. G. Koenigsberger,
The Government of Sicily Under Philip II
(London, 1951), passim.

45.
Idem,
The Habsburgs and Europe
, passim; and see also the excellent new study by D. Stella,
Crisis and Continuity: The Economy of Spanish Lombardy in the Seventeenth Century
(Cambridge, Mass., 1979).

46.
Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands
, pp. 21–22.

47.
NCMH
, vol. 1, pp. 450ff, and vol. 2, pp. 320ff; Elliott,
Imperial Spain
, chs. 5 and 8; Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 1, pp. 53ff and passim, and vol. 2, pp. 3ff.

48.
For what follows, see Cipolla,
Before the Industrial Revolution
, pp. 250ff; J. V. Vives, “The Decline of Spain in the Seventeenth Century,” in Cipolla (ed.),
Economic Decline of Empires
, pp. 121–67, Davies,
Golden Century of Spain
, chs. 3 and 8; Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 1, pp. 191ff; as well as the books by Elliott and Lynch.

49.
Cipolla,
Guns and Sails
, p. 33; Thompson,
War and Government in Habsburg Spain
, p. 25.