The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (110 page)

50.
D. Maland,
Europe in the Seventeenth Century
(London, 1966), p. 214; Lynch,
Spain Under the Habsburgs
, vol. 2, pp. 139ff. But this Spanish policy of tolerating trade with their Dutch enemies was often reversed, as is made clear in Israel’s article, note 82 below.

51.
Thompson,
War and Government in Habsburg Spain
, p. i; Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, pp. 71–75; more generally, Hale,
War and Society in Renaissance Europe
, chs. 8–9.

52.
Parker,
Spain and the Netherlands
, p. 96.

53.
NCMH
, vol. 2, p. 472.

54.
Ibid., vol. 1, ch. 10; and espec. M. Wolfe,
The Fiscal System of Renaissance France
(New Haven/London, 1972), chs. 2–3.

55.
Oman,
War in the Sixteenth Century
, pp. 393–536, gives the military details of the French wars. For the politics, see J.H.M. Salmon,
Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century
(London, 1975), passim; and R. Briggs,
Early Modern France 1560–1715
(Oxford, 1977), ch. 1.

56.
Nef,
War and Human Progress
, pp. 103ff; Wolfe,
Fiscal System of Renaissance France
, ch. 8; Salmon,
Society in Crisis
, pp. 301ff; E. J. Hamilton, “Origin and Growth of National Debt in Western Europe,”
American Economic Review
, vol. 37, no. 2 (1947), pp. 119–20.

57.
NCMH
, vol. 3, pp. 314–17; Wolfe,
Fiscal System of Renaissance France
, ch. 8; Salmon,
Society in Crisis
, ch. 12; Briggs,
Early Modern France
, pp. 80ff; Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, pp. 119–22.

58.
Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, pp. 17ff, 246ff; J. B. Wolf,
Toward a European Balance of Power 1620–1715
(Chicago, 1970), pp. 17–19.

59.
A. Guery, “Les finances de la monarchie Française,”
Annales
, vol. 33, no. 2 (1978), pp. 216–39, espec. pp. 228–30, 236. The similarity of the strains upon both France and Spain is well argued in J. H. Elliott,
Richelieu and Olivares
(Cambridge, 1984), especially chs. 3 and 5–6; and in M. S. Kimmell, “War, State Finance, and Revolution,” in P. McGowan and C. W. Kegley (eds.),
Foreign Policy and the Modern World-System
(Beverly Hills, Calif., 1983), pp. 89–124.

60.
E. H. Jenkins,
A History of the French Navy
(London, 1973), ch. 4; Briggs,
Early Modern France
, pp. 128–44; Parker,
Europe in Crisis
, pp. 276ff.

61.
R. Stradling, “Catastrophe and Recovery: The Defeat of Spain 1639–43,”
History
, vol. 64, no. 211 (June 1979), pp. 205–19.

62.
On English economic history in this period, see Cipolla,
Before the Industrial Revolution
, pp. 276–96; D. C. Coleman,
The Economy of England 1450–1750
(Oxford, 1977); B. Murphy,
A History of the British Economy
(London, 1973), pt. 1, ch. 4; C. Hill,
Reformation to Industrial Revolution
(Harmondsworth, Mddsx. 1969); R. Davis,
English Overseas Trade 1500–1700
(London, 1973). Among the more prominent political surveys are G. R. Elton,
England Under the Tudors
(London, 1955); D. M. Loades,
Politics and the Nation 1450–1660
(London, 1974), pp. 118ff; and P. Williams,
The Tudor Regime
(Oxford, 1979), espec. chs. 2 and 9. On the crown’s finances, see the older work F. C. Dietz,
English Public Finance 1485–1641
, vol. 1,
English Government Finance 1485–1558
(London, 1964 edn.).

63.
Nef,
War and Human Progress
, pp. 10–12, 71–73, 87–88.

64.
C. Barnett,
Britain and Her Army 1509–1970: A Military, Political and Social Survey
(London, 1970), ch. 1; Oman,
War in the Sixteenth Century
, pp. 285ff; G. J. Millar,
Tudor Mercenaries and Auxiliaries 1485–1547
(Charlottesville, Va., 1980). For the later period, see C. G. Cruikshank,
Elizabeth’s Army
(2nd edn., Oxford, 1966).

65.
Williams,
Tudor Regime
, pp. 64ff; Dietz,
English Government Finance
, chs. 7–14; Hill,
Reformation to Industrial Revolution
, ch. 6; P. S. Crowson,
Tudor Foreign Policy
(London, 1973), ch. 25.

66.
K. R. Andrews,
Elizabethan Privateering
(Cambridge, 1964); indem,
Trade, Plunder and Settlement
(Cambridge, 1983); Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 1, pp. 120ff; D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan,
England’s Sea Empire, 1550–1642
(London, 1983), ch. 5; Scammell,
World Encompassed
, pp. 465ff.

67.
As quoted in Kennedy,
British Naval Mastery
, p. 28. See also M. Howard, “The British Way in Warfare” (Neale Lecture, London, 1975); Barnett,
Britain and Her Army
, pp. 25ff, 51ff; R. B. Wernham, “Elizabethan War Aims and Strategy,” in
Elizabethan Government and Society
, ed. S. T. Bindoff, J. Hurstfield, and C. H. Williams (London, 1961), pp. 340–68. See also the two general surveys by Wernham,
Before the Armada: The Growth of English Foreign Policy 1485–1588
(London, 1966), and
The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy 1588–1603
(Berkeley/Los Angeles/London, 1980).

68.
For these figures, see F. C. Dietz, “The Exchequer in Elizabeth’s Reign,”
Smith College Studies in History
, vol. 8, no. 2 (January 1923); idem,
English Public Finance 1485–1641
, vol. 2,
1558–1641
, chs. 2–5; W. R. Scott,
The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint Stock Companies to 1720
, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1912), vol. 3, pp. 485–544.

69.
Loades,
Politics and the Nation
, pp. 301ff; R. Ashton,
The Crown and the Money Market 1603–1640
(Oxford, 1960), passim, espec. chs. 2 and 7.

70.
R. Ashton,
The English Civil War: Conservatism and Revolution 1603–1649
(London, 1979); C. Hill,
The Century of Revolution 1603–1714
(Edinburgh, 1961), pt. 1; C. Russell (ed.),
The Origins of the English Civil War
(London, 1973); L. Stone,
The Causes of the English Revolution 1529–1642
(London, 1972); Loades,
Politics and the Nation
, pp. 327ff.

71.
Kennedy,
British Naval Mastery
, pp. 44ff; Barnett,
Britain and Her Army
, pp. 90ff; Hill,
Reformation to Industrial Revolution
, pp. 155ff; J. R. Jones,
Britain and the World 1649–1815
(London, 1980), pp. 51ff. See also two important German studies: B. Martin, “Aussenhandel und Aussenpolitik Englands unter Cromwell,”
Historische Zeitschrift
, vol. 218, no. 3 (June 1974), pp. 571–92; and H. C. Junge,
Flottenpolitik und Revolution: Die Entstehung der englischen Seemacht während der Herrschaft Cromwells
(Stuttgart, 1980).

72.
M. Ashley,
Financial and Commercial Policy Under the Cromwellian Protectorate
(London, 1962 edn.), p. 48.

73.
C. Hill,
Century of Revolution
, p. 161.

74.
North and Thomas,
Rise of the Western World
, pp. 118, 150, and passim.

75.
What follows relies heavily upon the writings of Michael Roberts, not only his classic
Gustavus Adolphus
, 2 vols. (London, 1958), but also his broader surveys:
Essays in Swedish History
(London, 1967);
Gustavus Adolphus and the Rise of Sweden
(London, 1973); (ed.),
Sweden’s Age of Greatness, 1632–1718
(London, 1973); and
The Swedish Imperial Experience 1560–1718
(Cambridge, 1979).

76.
Cipolla,
Guns and Sails
, pp. 52ff; Roberts,
Gustavus Adolphus
, vol. 2, pp. 107ff;
Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 2, pp. 203ff; and E. F. Heckscher,
An Economic History of Sweden
(Cambridge, Mass., 1963), ch. 4, espec. pp. l0lff.

77.
There is a brief summary of the reforms in Roberts,
Gustavus Adolphus and the Rise of Sweden
, chs. 6–7; full details in idem,
Gustavus Adolphus
, vol. 2, pp. 63–304.

78.
See F. Redlich, “Contributions in the Thirty Years War,”
Economic History Review
, 2nd series, vol. 12 (1959), pp. 247–54, as well as his larger work,
The German Military Enterpriser and His Work Force, 2
vols. (Wiesbaden, 1964). M. Ritter, “Das Kontributionssystem Wallensteins,”
Historische Zeitschrift
, vol. 90 (1902), and A. Ernstberger,
Hans de Witte: Finanzmann Wallensteins
(Wiesbaden, 1954), have further details. For Sweden, see Roberts,
Gustavus Adolphus and the Rise of Sweden
, ch. 8; and S. Lundkvist, “Svensk krigsfinansiering 1630–1635,”
Historisk tidskrift
, 1966, pp. 377–421, with a German summary.

79.
Roberts, “Charles XI,” in
Essays in Swedish History
, p. 233.

80.
Idem,
Swedish Imperial Experience
, pp. 132–37.

81.
Ibid., p. 51.

82.
G. Parker,
The Dutch Revolt
(London, 1977), supersedes all other accounts of the sixteenth-century phase of the “Eighty Years War.” For the later struggle, see the important article by J. I. Israel, “A Conflict of Empires: Spain and the Netherlands, 1618–1648,”
Past and Present
, no. 76 (1977), pp. 34–74; and idem,
The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World, 1606–1661
(Oxford, 1982).

83.
G. Gash,
Renaissance Armies 1480–1650
(Cambridge, 1975), p. 106.

84.
C. Wilson,
The Dutch Republic and the Civilization of the Seventeenth Century
(London, 1968), p. 31. See also Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 1, pp. 199ff; vol. 2, ch. 2.

85.
Quoted from Parker,
Dutch Revolt
, p. 249; Reynolds,
Command of the Sea
, pp. 158ff; Boxer,
Dutch Seaborne Empire
, passim; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 1, ch. 5; Scammell,
World Encompassed
, ch. 7.

86.
On this “shift” from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic world, see Cipolla,
Before the Industrial Revolution
, ch. 10; Braudel,
Mediterranean World
, vol. 2; Waller-stein,
Modern World System
, vols. 1 and 2; and R. T. Rapp, “The Unmaking of the Mediterranean Trade Hegemony,”
Journal of Economic History
, vol. 35 (1975), pp. 499–525, with some useful reservations about what was happening.

87.
On the losses caused to the United Provinces by the war, see Parker, “War and Economic Change,” passim, and Israel, “Conflict of Empires,” passim. On Amsterdam’s financial role, and official debts, see Parker, “Emergence of Modern Finance in Europe,” pp. 549ff, 573ff; V. Barbour,
Capitalism in Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century
(Baltimore, 1950), passim; André-E. Sayous, “Le rôle d’Amsterdam dans l’histoire du capitalisme commercial et financier,”
Revue Historique
, vol. 183, no. 2 (October-December 1938), pp. 242–80.

88.
Bean, “War and the Birth of the Nation State,” passim. See also S. E. Finer, “State and Nation-Building in Europe: The Role of the Military,” in C. Tilly (ed.),
The Formation of National States in Western Europe
(Princeton, 1975), pp. 84–163.

89.
NCMH
, vol. 3, ch. 16; Wesson,
State Systems
, pp. 121ff; O. Ranum (ed.),
National Consciousness, History and Political Culture in Early-Modern Europe
(Baltimore/London, 1975); and E. D. Marcu,
Sixteenth Century Nationalism
(New York, 1976). This was also seen in the “national” economic theories of the time: see G. H. McCormick, “Strategic Considerations in the Development of Economic Thought,” pp. 4–8, in G. H. McCormick and R. E. Bissess (eds.),
Strategic Dimensions of Economic Behavior
(New York, 1984).

90.
Among the more general interpretations and syntheses, see Tilly (ed.),
Formation of National States in Western Europe
, passim; Bendix,
Kings or People
, pp.
247ff; Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 1, ch. 3; V. G. Kiernan, “State and Nation in Western Europe,”
Past and Present
, vol. 31 (1965), pp. 20–38; J. H. Shennan,
The Origins of the Modern European State 1450–1725
(London, 1974); H. Lubasz (ed.),
The Development of the Modern State
(New York, 1964).