The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (114 page)

88.
Figures from Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, p. 152; see also Chandler,
Campaigns of Napoleon
, p. 734. For the Austrian army’s campaigning—and recuperation—see Rothenberg,
Napoleon’s Great Adversaries
, pp. 123ff.

89.
For the Peninsular War, see the relevant parts of Glover,
Campaigns of Napoleon:
J. Weiler,
Wellington in the Peninsula
(London, 1962); R. Glover,
Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army, 1795–1809
(Cambridge, 1963); M. Glover,
The Peninsular War, 1807–1814: A Concise History
(Newton Abbott, 1974); Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, pp. 198ff. The French side is covered in J. Thiry,
La Guerre d’Espagne
(Paris, 1966); Ross,
European Diplomatic History
, pp. 276ff; G. H. Lovett,
Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2
vols. (New York, 1965). The importance of the Spanish contribution is rightly stressed in D. Gates,
The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsula War
(London, 1986).

90.
Brunn,
Europe and the French Imperium
, ch. 8; Rudé,
Revolutionary Europe
, chs. 13–14; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, chs. 7–8; J. Godechet, B. F. Hyslop, and D. L. Dowd,
The Napoleonic Era in Europe
(New York, 1971), espec. ch. 8; G. Best,
War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, 1770–1870
(London, 1982), chs. 11–13; R. J. Rath,
The Fall of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy
(New York, 1941), chs. 1–2.

91.
Crouzet, “Wars, Blockade and Economic Change,” passim; Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, chs. 4–5; O. Connelly,
Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms
(New York, 1965), passim. For Russian policy, see Chandler,
Campaign of Napoleon
, pp. 739ff;
NCMH
, vol. 9, pp. 512ff; Lobanov-Rostovsky,
Russia in Europe, 1789–1825
, passim; and, earlier, H. Ragsdale,
Détente in the Napoleonic Era: Bonaparte and the Russians
(Lawrence, Kansas, 1980).

92.
Chandler,
Campaigns of Napoleon
, pts. 13–14; Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, pp. 160ff; Ross,
European Diplomatic History
, pp. 310ff; A. Palmer,
Napoleon in Russia
(New York, 1967); C. Duffy,
Borodino and the War of 1812
(London, 1973); Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, ch. 9; G. Blond,
La Grande Armée 1804/1815
(Paris, 1979).

93.
Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, p. 193; Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, chs. 12–13, espec. pp. 287–88; Rothenberg,
Napoleon’s Great Adversaries
, pp. 178ff.

94.
Which is perhaps why it is almost completely ignored in so many of the standard military and diplomatic histories of this period. For details, see E. B. Potter (ed.),
Sea Power: A Naval History
, 2nd edn. (Annapolis, Md., 1981), ch. 10, and bibliography on p. 392; B. Perkins,
Prologue to War: England and the United States 1805–1812
(Berkeley, Calif., 1961); A. T. Mahan,
Sea Power in Its Relations to the War of 1812, 2
vols. (London, 1905); Marcus,
Naval History of England
, vol. 2, ch. 16.

95.
Ingram,
Commitment to Empire
, passim; G. J. Adler, “Britain and the Defence of India—The Origins of the Problem, 1798–1815,”
Journal of Asian History
, vol. 6 (1972), pp. 14–44.

96.
Chandler,
Campaigns of Napoleon
, pt. 17; Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, pp. 212ff; Lefevre,
Napoleon
, vol. 2, ch. 10; Blond,
La Grand Armée
, ch. 16; H. Lachouque,
Waterloo
(Paris, 1972); U. Pericoli and M. Glover,
1815: The Armies at Waterloo
(London, 1973).

97.
For details on the 1814–1815 settlements, see Sherwig,
Guineas and Gunpowder
, ch. 14;
NCMH
, vol. 9, ch. 24; E. V. Gulick,
Europe’s Classical Balance of Power
(New York, 1967 edn.), passim; C. K. Webster,
The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1812–1815: Britain and the Reconstruction of Europe
(London, 1931); H. G. Nicolson,
The Congress of Vienna
(London/New York, 1946); D. Dakin, “The Congress of Vienna, 1814–15, and Its Antecedents,” in A. Sked (ed.),
Europe’s Balance of Power 1815–1848
(London, 1979).

98.
Gulick,
Europe’s Classical Balance of Power
, p. 304. See also the comments in H. Kissinger,
A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812–1822
(Boston, 1957).

99.
For a succinct coverage of the extensive literature, see P. J. Marshall, “British Expansion in India in the Eighteenth Century: An Historical Revision,”
History
, vol. 60 (1975), pp. 28–43; as well as the remarks in Ingram,
Commitment to Empire
.

100.
See Braudel,
Wheels of Commerce
, pp. 403ff, for a useful discussion of the importance of long-distance trade. For the specifically British context, I have benefited from reading Patrick O’Brien’s paper “The Impact of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1793–1815, on the Long Run Growth of the British Economy” (Davis Center Paper, 1983).

101.
This literature is covered in Crouzet, “Toward an Export Economy,” passim; Cain and Hopkins, “The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas, 1750–1914,” passim; R. Davis,
The Industrial Revolution and British Overseas Trade
(Leicester, 1979); N.F.R. Crafts, “British Economic Growth, 1700–1831: A Review of the Evidence,”
Economic History Review
, 2nd series, vol. 36 (1983), pp. 177–99.

102.
The phrase is used in F. Crouzet,
The Victorian Economy
(London, 1982), p. 1.

103.
Glover,
Napoleonic Wars
, pp. 182–83.

104.
Quoted in Marcus,
Naval History of England
, vol. 2, p. 501.

1.
S. Pollard,
Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe 1760–1970
(Oxford, 1981), passim. For good treatments of the Industrial Revolution in the West on a
country-by-country
basis, see T. Kemp,
Industrialization in Nineteenth-Century Europe
(London, 1969); W. O. Henderson,
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent: Germany, France, Russia 1800–1914
(London, 1967 edn.); C. Trebilcock,
The Industrialization of the Continental Powers 1780–1914
(London, 1981); C. M. Cipolla (ed.),
Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 3,
The Industrial Revolution
(London, 1973); A. S. Milward and S. B. Saul,
The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870
(London, 1973).

2.
C. M. Cipolla, “Introduction,” in Cipolla (ed.),
Industrial Revolution
, p. 7.

3.
D. Landes,
The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present
(Cambridge, 1969), p. 41.

4.
Ibid.

5.
Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
, vol. 1, pp. 42ff.

6.
For details, see McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, pp. 185ff; G. Rudé,
Paris and London in the Eighteenth Century: Studies in Popular Protest
(New York, 1971), passim.

7.
T. S. Ashton,
The Industrial Revolution 1760–1830
(Oxford, 1968 edn.), p. 129. For other excellent studies of British economic change in this period, see Mathias,
First Industrial Nation
, passim; Hobsbawm,
Industry and Empire
, chs. 2–4 and 6; and Crouzet,
Victorian Economy
, pt. 1, from where the population and GNP figures given in the preceding paragraph come.

8.
Landes,
Unbound Prometheus
, pp. 97–98.

9.
Ashton,
Industrial Revolution
, p. 129.

10.
Mathias,
First Industrial Nation
, p. 5.

11.
Bairoch, “International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980,” pp. 296 and 294 respectively. In the “Methodological Appendix” to this important essay, Bairoch discusses how he reaches these figures. Bairoch’s assumptions are by no means uncontested, however: see A. Maddison, “A Comparison of Levels of GDP per Capita in Developed and Developing Countries, 1700–1980,”
Journal of Economic History
, vol. 43 (1983), pp. 27–41.

12.
Bairoch, “International Industrialization Levels,” pp. 290ff; Crouzet,
Victorian Economy
, Introduction.

13.
Woodruff,
Impact of Western Man
, passim; D. Fieldhouse,
The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eighteenth Century
(London, 1966), pt. 2; idem,
Economics and Empire 1830–1916
(London, 1973), passim.

14.
On which see V. Kiernan,
European Empires from Conquest to Collapse, 1815–1960
(London, 1982); Strachen,
European Armies and the Conduct of War
, ch. 6.

15.
Figures from Fieldhouse,
Colonial Empires
, p. 178.

16.
This has now been very well covered in D. R. Headrich,
The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1981), ch. 2 and passim.

17.
E. Hobsbawm,
The Age of Capital 1848–1875
(London, 1975), ch. 7.

18.
Bairoch, “International Industrialization Levels,” p. 291. For a new study which stresses (and perhaps overstresses) the relative slowness of British economic expansion in these decades, see N.F.R. Crafts,
British Economic Growth During the Industrial Revolution
(Oxford, 1985).

19.
Crouzet,
Victorian Economy
, pp. 4–5.

20.
Quoted in R. Hyam,
Britain’s Imperial Century 1815–1914
(London, 1975), p. 47. For further details, see B. Porter,
The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism 1850–1970
(London, 1976), passim; Cain and Hopkins, “The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas, 1750–1914,” passim; Crouzet, “Towards an Export Economy,” passim; J. B. Williams,
British Commercial Policy and Trade Expansion 1750–1850
(Oxford, 1972), passim.

21.
P. Bairoch, “Europe’s Gross National Product: 1800–1975,”
Journal of European Economic History
, vol. 5, no. 2 (Fall 1976), p. 282. And see Table 10 below.

22.
D. French,
British Economic and Strategic Planning 1905–1915
(London, 1982), ch. 1, “Nineteenth-Century Political Economy and the Problem of War,” is a good introduction to these ideas.

23.
See H. Strachan,
Wellington’s Legacy: The Reform of the British Army, 1830–54
(Manchester, 1984).

24.
These seem reasonable assumptions, based upon the crude figures of British GNP and government expenditures available in A. T. Peacock and J. Wiseman,
The Growth of Public Expenditure in the United Kingdon
(London, 1967 edn.); and P. Flora (ed.),
State, Economy and Society in Western Europe 1875–1975
, vol. 1 (Frankfurt/London, 1983), especially pt. 4, p. 441.

25.
Figures taken from the “Correlates of War” print-out data made available
through the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan.

26.
C. Lloyd,
The Nation and the Navy
(London, 1961), p. 223.

27.
For details, see Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, ch. 6; and espec. C. J. Bartlett,
Great Britain and Sea Power 1815–1853
(Oxford, 1963), passim. For some regional manifestations: G. S. Graham,
Great Britain in the Indian Ocean: A Study of Maritime Enterprise 1810–1850
(Oxford, 1967); B. Gough,
The Royal Navy and the North West Coast of America 1810–1914
(Vancouver, 1971); G. Fox,
British Admirals and Chinese Pirates 1832–1869
(London, 1940).

28.
A.G.L. Shaw (ed.),
Great Britain and the Colonies 1815–1865
(London, 1970), p. 2. Also important here are Hyam,
Britain’s Imperial Century
, passim; Porter,
Lion’s Share
, passim; J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, “The Imperialism of Free Trade,”
Economic History Review
, 2nd series, vol. 6, no. 1 (1953), pp. 1–15.