The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (112 page)

26.
Figures from Doyle,
Old European Order
, p. 242. For France under Louis XIV, see
NCMH
, vols. 5–6; A. de St. Leger and P. Sagnac,
La Prepondérance française, Louis XIV, 1661–1715
(Paris, 1935); R. M. Hatton (ed.),
Louis XIV and Europe
(London, 1976); P. Goubert,
Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen
(London, 1970); and J. B. Wolf,
Louis XIV
(London, 1968).

27.
For excellent analyses of the military-geopolitical problems facing the rulers in Vienna during this period, see K. A. Roider,
Austria’s Eastern Question 1700–1790
(Princeton, N.J., 1982); and C. W. Ingrao, “Habsburg Strategy and Geopolitics during the Eighteenth Century,” in G. E. Rothenberg, B. K. Kiraly, and P. F. Sugar (eds.),
East Central European Society and War in the Pre-Revolutionary Eighteenth Century
(New York, 1982), pp. 49–96. See also the running commentary in D. Mackay,
Prince Eugene of Savoy
(London, 1977).

28.
O. Hufton,
Europe: Privilege and Protest 1730–1789
(London, 1980), p. 155. See also
NCMH
, vol. 8, ch. 10; Kann,
History of the Habsburg Empire
, chs. 3 and 5; and, more generally, E. Wangermann,
The Austrian Achievement
(New York, 1973); and V. S. Mamatey,
Rise of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1815
(New York, 1971). See also the very useful comments in Duffy,
Army of Maria Theresa
, passim.

29.
Hufton,
Europe: Privilege and Protest
, ch. 7; Williams,
Ancien Regime in Europe
, chs. 13–16; Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 2, pp. 225ff; F. L. Carsten,
The Origins of Prussia
(Oxford, 1954), passim; H. Rosenberg,
Bureaucracy, Aristocracy and Autocracy: The Prussian Experience 1660–1815
(Cambridge, Mass., 1958). There is also a good survey of the Prussian reforms and system in
NCMH
, vol. 7, ch. 13.

30.
G. Craig,
The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640–1945
(Oxford, 1955), pp. 22ff; Duffy,
Army of Frederick the Great
, passim; T. N. Dupuy,
A Genius for War: The German Army and General Staff, 1807–1945
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977), pp. 17ff; P. Paret,
Yorck and the Era of Prussian Reform
(Princeton, N.J., 1961), passim.

31.
For a brief but very useful analysis, see P. Dukes,
The Emergence of the Superpowers: A Short Comparative History of the USA and the USSR
(London, 1970), chs. 1–2.

32.
Quoted from P. Bairoch, “International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980,”
Journal of European Economic History
, vol. 11, no. 2 (Spring 1982), p. 291. See also L. H. Gipson,
The Coming of the Revolution 1763–1775
(New York, 1962), pp. 13–18; R. M. Robertson,
History of the American Economy
(3rd edn., New York, 1973), p. 64.

33.
NCMH
, vol. 7, ch. 14, and vol. 8, ch. 11; Kochan and Abraham,
Making of Modern Russia
, chs. 7–9; Duffy,
Russia’s Military Way to the West
, passim; P. Dukes,
The Making of Russian Absolutism 1613–1801
(London, 1982), passim; M. Falkus,
The Industrialization of Russia 1700–1914
(London, 1972), chs. 2–3; M. Raeff,
Imperial Russia 1682–1825
(New York, 1971), passim; and the many
comments on Russia’s rise in M. S. Anderson,
Europe in the Eighteenth Century
(London, 1961), espec. ch. 9.

34.
A. de Tocqueville,
Democracy in America, 2
vols. (New York, 1945 edn.), p. 452; and see also the prognostications reported in Dukes,
Emergence of the Super-Powers
, chs. 1–3; H. Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des weltpolitischen Denkens, 2
vols. (Göttingen, 1972, 1982), vol. 1, pp. 403ff; and the commentary in W. Woodruff,
America’s Impact on the World: A Study of the Role of the United States in the World Economy 1750–1970
(New York, 1973).

35.
A. T. Mahan,
The Influence of Sea Power upon History 1660–1783
(London, 1965 edn.), p. 29.

36.
On which see Kennedy,
The Rise and Fall of the British Naval Mastery
, introduction and chs. 3–5; M. Howard,
The British Way in Warfare
(Neale Lecture, University of London, 1974), passim; Jones,
Britain and the World
, chs. 1–2 and passim.

37.
D. E. C. Eversley, “The Home Market and Economic Growth in England 1750–1780,” in E. L. Jones and G. E. Mingay (eds.),
Land, Labour and Population of the Industrial Revolution
(London, 1967), pp. 206–59; F. Crouzet, “Toward an Export Economy: British Exports During the Industrial Revolution,”
Explorations in Economic History
, vol. 17 (1980), pp. 48–93; P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, “The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas, 1750–1914,”
Economic History Review
, 2nd series, vol. 33, no. 4 (1980), pp. 463–90.

38.
Quoted in H. Richmond,
Statesmen and Sea Power
(Oxford, 1946), p. 111; and see further details of this strategical debate in R. Pares, “American versus Continental Warfare 1739–63,”
English Historical Review
, vol. 51, no. 103 (1936), pp. 429–65; Wallerstein,
Modern World-System
, vol. 2, pp. 246ff; G. Niedhart,
Handel und Krieg in der britischen Weltpolitik 1738–1763
(Munich, 1979), pp. 64ff.

39.
L. Dehio,
The Precarious Balance
(London, 1963), p. 118.

40.
These figures—all
approximations
—come from a variety of sources, including Cipolla,
Before the Industrial Revolution
, p. 4; A. Armengaud, “Population in Europe 1700–1914,” in C. M. Cipolla (ed.),
Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 3 (1976), pp. 22–76;
NCMH
, vol. 8, p. 714; B. R. Mitchell,
European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970
(London, 1975), pt. A; W. Woodruff,
Impact of Western Man: A Study of Europe’s Role in the World Economy 1750–1960
(New York, 1967), p. 104.

41.
Corvisier,
Armies and Societies in Europe 1494–1789
, p. 113, gives different figures from Childs,
Armies and Warfare in Europe 1648–1789
, p. 42—and both differ on occasions from data given in specific works on national armies or individual wars.

42.
These figures are taken from Anderson,
Europe in the Eighteenth Century
, pp. 144–45, with somewhat different ones given in L. W. Cowie,
Eighteenth-Century Europe
(London, 1963), pp. 141–42. Again, amendments have been made in the light of what seems to be a more authoritative source: thus, the 1779 figures come from J. Dull,
The French Navy and American Independence
(Princeton, N.J., 1975), appendix F; and the 1790 totals from O. von Pivka,
Navies of the Napoleonic Era
(Newton Abbott, 1980), p. 30 (but cf.
NCMH
, vol. 8, p. 190).

43.
See pp. 135–37 below.

44.
For what follows, see McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 14ff; Stoye,
Europe Unfolding 1648–1688
, ch. 9; Wolf,
Toward a European Balance of Power
, passim; idem,
The Emergence of the Great Powers 1685–1715
(New York, 1951), chs. 1–7;
NCMH
, vol. 5, ch. 9; St. Leger and Sagnac,
La Préponderance française
, passim; and Hatton (ed.),
Louis XIV and Europe
, passim.

45.
L. Andre,
Michel Le Tellier et Louvois
(Paris, 1943 edn.); C. Jones, “The Military
Revolution and the Professionalization of the French Army under the Ancien Régime,” in M. Duffy (ed.).
The Military Revolution and the State 1500–1800
(Exeter Studies in History, no. 1, Exeter, 1980), pp. 29–48; Jenkins,
History of the French Navy
, ch. 5.

46.
Jones,
Britain and the World
, pp. 100–110; idem,
Country and Court 1658–1714
(London, 1978), pp. 106ff; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 2, ch. 4.

47.
McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 34ff; Hatton (ed.),
Louis XIV and Europe
, passim.

48.
NCMH
, vol. 6, ch. 7; Wolf,
Toward a European Balance of Power
, ch. 4; McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 43–50.

49.
G. Symcox,
The Crisis of French Seapower 1689–1697
(The Hague, 1974), passim; Jenkins,
History of the French Navy
, pp. 69–88; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 2, ch. 5.

50.
For these remarks, see Symcox,
Crisis of French Seapower
, passim; Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, pp. 76–80; G. N. Clarke,
The Dutch Alliance and the War Against French Trade 1688–1697
(New York, 1971 edn.), passim; D. G. Chandler, “Fluctuations in the Strength of Forces in English Pay sent to Flanders During the Nine Years War, 1688–1697,”
War and Society
, vol. 1, no. 2 (September 1983), pp. 1–20; S. B. Baxter,
William III and the Defense of European Liberty 1650–1702
(Westport, Conn., 1976 reprint), pp. 288ff.

51.
McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 54–63; Wolf,
Toward a European Balance of Power
, ch. 7;
NCMH
, vol. 6, ch. 12.

52.
For military events, and tactics, in this war, see G. Chandler,
The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough
(London, 1976); Barnett,
Britain and Her Army
, pp. 152ff; McKay,
Prince Eugene of Savoy
, pp. 58ff.

53.
Mahan,
Influence of Sea Power upon History
, ch. 5; Kennedy,
Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
, pp. 82–88; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 2, pp. 156ff; Jones,
Britain and Europe in the Seventeenth Century
, ch. 7;
NCMH
, vol. 6, chs. 11–13, 15.

54.
For the Peace of Utrecht, see McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, pp. 63–66;
NCMH
, vol. 6, ch. 14. On the
Asiento
concession, see G. J. Walker,
Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade, 1700–1789
(Bloomington, 1979), ch. 4.

55.
J. W. Stoye,
The Siege of Vienna
(London, 1964); T. M. Barker,
Double Eagle and Crescent
(Albany, N.Y., 1967); McKay,
Prince Eugene of Savoy
, chs. 3 and 5;
NCMH
, vol. 6, ch. 19. For characteristics of military warfare in eastern Europe, see B. K. Kiraly and G. E. Rotherberg (eds.),
War and Society in Eastern Europe
, vol. 1 (New York, 1979), espec. pp. 1–33, 361ff.

56.
For Charles XII, see R. M. Hatton,
Charles XII of Sweden
(London, 1968), and her ch. 20(i) in
NCMH
, vol. 6, as well as the comments in Roberts,
Swedish Imperial Experience
. For Peter, see M. S. Anderson,
Peter the Great
(London, 1978); R. Wittram,
Peter I: Czar und Kaiser, 2
vols. (Göttingen, 1964); B. H. Sumner,
Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia
(London, 1940);
NCMH
, vol. 6, chs. 20(i) and 21.

57.
McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, p. 92.

58.
Dehio,
Precarious Balance
, p. 102.

59.
McKay and Scott,
Rise of the Great Powers
, ch. 4.

60.
NCMH
, vol. 7, ch. 9. For the policies of the individual powers, see A. M. Wilson,
French Foreign Policy During the Administration of Cardinal Fleury
(Cambridge, Mass., 1936); P. Langford,
The Eighteenth Century, 1688–1815: British Foreign Policy
(London, 1976), pp. 71ff; Kann,
History of the Habsburg Empire
, pp. 90ff.

61.
Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 2, pp. 194ff; R. Pares,
War and Trade in the West Indies 1739–1763
(Oxford, 1936); M. Savelle,
Empires to Nations: Expansion in
America, 1713–1824
(Minneapolis, 1974), ch. 6; Walker,
Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade
, espec. pt. 3; W. L. Dorn,
Competition for Empire 1740–1763
(New York, 1940). For the War of Austrian Succession, see
NCMH
, vol. 7, ch. 17.

62.
Dorn,
Competition for Empire
, passim; Pares,
War and Trade
, passim; idem, “American versus Continental Warfare,” passim;
NCMH
, vol. 7, chs. 20 and 22; Padfield,
Tide of Empires
, vol. 2, pp. 224ff; Saville,
Empires to Nations
, pp. 135ff; C. M. Andrews, “Anglo-French Commercial Rivalry, 1700–1750,”
American Historical Review
, vol. 20 (1915), pp. 539–56, 761–80; P.L.R. Higonnet, “The Origins of the Seven Years War,”
Journal of Modern History
, vol. 40 (1968), pp. 57–90.