The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World (116 page)

1.
   “take advantage”:
Collected Works of Liao Gang
(12th century), in Shiba and Elvin,
Commerce and Society in Sung China,
9.

2.
   Asian Mediterranean: For a discussion, see Sutherland, “Southeast Asian History.”

3.
   more than twenty-six thousand: The main groups are: Indonesia, 18,108 islands 17BBC report, February 2003); the Philippines, 7,107 islands; and
Malaysia, about 1,000 islands.

4.
   Austronesian languages: Jacq-Hergoualc’h,
The Malay Peninsula,
24.

5.
   languages are spoken: Bellwood, “Southeast Asia Before History,” 106–15.

6.
   “Customs are not uniform”:
Sanguo Zhi
(Records of the Three Kingdoms), 53.8b, in Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
75–76.

7.
   a local tradition: Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
1.

8.
   cast bronze drums: Bellwood,
Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago,
269–71.

9.
   Sa Huyhn simply chose not to trade: Bellwood, “Southeast Asia Before History,” 129–31.

10.
   “tribute” was an elaborate fiction: Bielenstein,
Diplomacy and Trade,
675.

11.
   “The gentleman is conversant”:
Analects of Confucius,
4.16, 19 (pp. 69–70).

12.
   “an enlightened ruler”:
Han Shu,
24a:10b-12a, in Ban,
Food and Money,
161–62.

13.
   naval or amphibious operations: Deng,
Chinese Maritime Activities,
9.

14.
   “As the emperor considered”:
Shiji
(Records of the Grand Historian), 6, 18a, in Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:551–52.

15.
   the main rivers: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:220–22; Van Slyke,
Yangtze
, 13, 37.

16.
   “a force of men”: Sima Qian,
Records of the Grand Historian,
2:232.

17.
   “a chain of communication”: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:306.

18.
   “hanged themselves”: Sima Qian,
Records of the Grand Historian,
2:201.

19.
   “The cruelty”: Zhou Qufei,
Information on What Is Beyond the Passes,
in Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:304.

20.
   “used boats”:
Wu Yue Chun Qiu
(Annals of Wu and Yue), chap. 6, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
2.

21.
   “a pair of white jades”:
Han Shu,
95, 9b, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
11.

22.
   “the center for trade”:
Shi Ji,
129:11b, in Ban,
Food and Money,
446.

23.
   “as well as 100,000 sailors”: Sima Qian,
Records of the Grand Historian,
2:215.

24.
   Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, and Rinan:
Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
70. In Vietnamese, Jiaozhi is called Giao-chi; Jiuzhen is Cuu-chan; and Rinan is Nhat-nam. Cochin China derives from the Portuguese corruption of Cuu chan as Cochin.

25.
   “lustrous pearls”:
Ch’ien Han Shu
(History of the Former Han), 28.2, in Wheatley,
Golden Khersonese,
8–9.

26.
   sisters Trung: Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
37–41.

27.
   Jiaozhi remained: Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
24; Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
71–72.

28.
   Funan:
Hall,
Maritime Trade,
21–22, 48–77; Wheatley,
Golden Khersonese,
xix. Funan is the Chinese rendering of the Khmer
bnam,
“mountain,” now pronounced
phnom,
as in Phnom Penh.

29.
   “attacked and conquered”: In Hall,
Maritime Trade,
64.

30.
   “live in walled cities”: In ibid., 48.

31.
   A lost work: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:449–50.

32.
   “The Sea Route to Da Qin”: Yu Huan,
Peoples of the West,
online.

33.
   “all the men”: Hill,
Western Regions,
online.

34.
   “traffic by sea”:
Han Annals,
in Wheeler,
Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers,
174. See also Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
25.

35.
   battle of the Red Cliffs: Crespigny,
Generals of the South,
267–75.

36.
   horse pastures: Elvin,
Pattern of the Chinese Past,
135–36; Chin, “Ports, Merchants, Chieftains and Eunuchs,” 222.

37.
   “where only the poor”:
Jin Shu
[Jin History], 90, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
38.

38.
   a million northerners: Zheng,
China on the Sea,
26.

39.
   for the first time: Ibid., 30.

40.
   “with his ships”:
Jin Shu
[Jin History], 97, 9a, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
35.

41.
   “The governor”:
Nan Ch’i Shu
[History of the Southern Qi Dynasty], 32, 1a-1b, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
44.

42.
   looting the capital’s: Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
49; Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
117.

43.
   trade missions: Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
117–21.

44.
   “in case of accidents”: In Wheatley,
Golden Khersonese,
38–39; Faxian [Fa-hian],
Travels of Fa-Hian,
lxxix–lxxxiii. See Manguin, “Archaeology of Early Maritime Polities,” 238.

45.
   Kang Senghui: Grenet, “Les marchands sogdiens,” 66; Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
80.

46.
   Missions from Sri Lanka: Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
38.

47.
   “valuable products”:
Song Shu
(History of the Song), 97, 12b-13a, in Wang,
Nanhai Trade,
51.

48.
   “would become rich”:
Liang Shu
(History of the Liang), 54, 16b-17a, in Hall, “Local and International Trade,” 222.

49.
   Buddhism received: Wright,
Sui Dynasty,
126–38.

50.
   campaign along the Yangzi: Graff,
Medieval Chinese Warfare,
129–35.

51.
   extensive network of canals: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:269–70, 307–8.

52.
   “dragon boats, phoenix vessels”:
Sui Shu,
24.686, in Wright,
Sui Dynasty,
180.

53.
   “The only reason”: Lu You, in Chang and Smythe,
South China in the Twelfth Century,
48.

54.
   “the barbarians”:
Jiu Tang Shu
(Old Tang History), 41.43a, in Taylor,
Birth of Vietnam,
167.

55.
   bronze- and ironworking technologies: The Chinese Bronze and
Iron Ages began around 1750 and 770
BCE
, respectively; for Korea the corresponding dates are 1100 and 400
BCE
.

56.
   “the mountainous islands”:
Wei Zhi
(History of Wei), in Lu,
Japan,
11–12.

57.
   replacement ships:
Nihongi,
“Ojin,” 10.18 (300 ce) (vol. 1:268–69).

58.
   Yamato invasion: Brown, “Yamato Kingdom,” 111–12.

59.
   Sui Yangdi launched a second invasion: Deng,
Maritime Sector,
11, 22.

60.
   lashings and mortise-and-tenon joinery:
Bellwood and Cameron, “Ancient Boats,” 11–19.

61.
   Many Dong-Son drums: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:445–47.

62.
   bronze ship model: Spennemann, “On the Bronze Age Ship Model from Flores.”

63.
   “In the kingdom of Fu-nan”:
Shui Ching Chu
(Commentary on the Waterways Classic), 1.9a, in Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:450.

64.
   “the very big
kolandiophonta
”: Casson,
Periplus
60, 230.

65.
   “The people of foreign parts”: Wan Chen,
Strange Things of the South,
in Manguin, “Southeast Asian Ship,” 275. Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:600–601, feel this may describe vessels from Vietnam or even Guangdong Province; Ray, “Early Coastal Trade in the Bay of Bengal,” 360ff.

66.
   “lashed-lug and stitched-plank”: Manguin, “Southeast Asian Shipping,” 183–85.

67.
   Sewn-plank fastening: McGrail,
Boats of the World,
354.

68.
   the Chinese approach: Ibid., 367, 370–77.

69.
   centerline or axial rudder: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:640–51, plate 975; McGrail,
Boats of the World
, 380.

70.
   layers of planking: McGrail,
Boats of the World
, 365–70, 372, 375.

71.
   bulkheads gave hulls: Ibid., 366–67; Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:420–22; Manguin, “Trading Ships,” 268.

72.
   free-flooding compartments: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:422.

73.
   “at a moderate speed”: Worcester,
Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze
, 45.

74.
   
yulohs
: Ibid., 44–50.

75.
   Towing: Ibid., 50–56; Van Slyke,
Yangtze
, 119–26.

76.
   The primary materials: Needham et al.,
Science and Civilisation,
vol. 4, pt. 3:441–48, 595–97; Van Slyke,
Yangtze,
120–21; and Deng,
Chinese Maritime Activities,
23–26, 32–33.

77.
   office of maritime administration (
Seonbuseo
): Kim, “Outline of Korean
Shipbuilding History,” 5.

78.
   Japanese cedar and camphorwood:
Nihongi,
1.58 (vol. 1:58);
rugged terrain:
5.16 (1:161);
gifts of salt:
10.18 (1:268–69);
“enrolled among the number”:
11.31 (1:297).

1.
   What prompted archaeologists: Bass et al.,
Serçe Limani,
1:52.

2.
   Yassi Ada B: Bass and van Doorninck, “Fourth-Century Shipwreck at Yassi Ada”; van Doorninck, “4th-Century Wreck at Yassi Ada”; McGrail,
Boats of the World,
159.

3.
   Yassi Ada A: Bass, “A Byzantine Trading Venture”; Bass and van Doorninck,
Yassi Ada
; McGrail,
Boats of the World,
159.

4.
   The Serçe Limani ship: Bass and van Doorninck, “11th-century Shipwreck”; Steffy, “Reconstruction of the 11th Century Serçe Liman Vessel.”

5.
   saws rather than axes: “Never, in a long career of examining wooden hull remains, have I seen so many saw marks and so few signs of axes and adzes on the surfaces of a hull” (J. Richard Steffy, in Bass et al.,
Serçe Limani,
1:153.)

6.
   When, where, and why: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
145–52; Unger,
Ship in the Medieval Economy,
37–42.

7.
   thirty to sixty tons burden: Pryor,
Geography, Technology and War
, 26; McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy
, 95.

8.
   suited to the times: Bass et al.,
Serçe Limani
, 1:185.

9.
   pictorial evidence:
Castro et al., “Quantitative Look,” 348, 350.

10.
   associated finds: Bass et al.,
Serçe Limani
, vol. 1.

11.
   Hellenized Bulgarians: Ibid., 1:4, 425–26, 488.

12.
   glass weight: Ibid., 1:8n5.

13.
   Pax Romana: Paine, “A
Pax
upon You,” 92–93.

14.
   battle of the Hellespont: Zosimus,
New History,
2.23–24 (pp. 34–35).

15.
   “the quiet shelter”: Procopius,
Buildings,
1.5.2–13 (vol. 7:57–61).

16.
   Gaeseric led: Procopius,
Vandalic Wars,
3.6.17–24 (vol. 2:59–63).

17.
   attack Cyprus: Al-Baladhuri,
Origins of the Islamic State,
1:236–37.

18.
   battle of the Masts: Cosentino, “Constans II and the Byzantine Navy,” 586–93; Christides, “Milaha”; and Stratos, “Naval Engagement at Phoenix.”

19.
   siege of Constantinople: Ostrogorsky,
History of the Byzantine State,
124.

20.
   “When the barbarians”: Leo VI,
Taktika,
in Jenkins, “Cyprus Between Byzantium and Islam,” 1012–13; Hill,
History of Cyprus,
1:290, which quotes Qudama ibn Ja’far al-Katib al-Baghdadi (ca. 873–948).

21.
   Cypriot waters: Jenkins, “Cyprus Between Byzantium and Islam,” 1008–9; Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
61–62.

22.
   Tunis, an almost impregnable site: Taha,
Muslim Conquest and Settlement,
71–72; Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
69–71.

23.
   strung a chain: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
31.

24.
   Seville: Taha,
Muslim Conquest and Settlement,
100.

25.
   The Franks’ interest: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
152–63; McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
527–28, 641–44.

26.
   agreement with Muslim ambassadors: Aziz Ahmad,
History of Islamic Sicily,
5; McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
900.

27.
   The Aghlabids began: Aziz Ahmad,
History of Islamic Sicily,
5–11; Ostrogorsky,
History of the Byzantine State,
208; and McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
906–7.

28.
   “renowned across nearly the whole world”: William of Puglia,
Gesta Roberti Wiscardi
[Guiscard], in Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World,” 299.

29.
   “the most prosperous town”: Ibn Hawqal,
The Book of Routes and Kingdoms,
in Citarella, “The Relations of Amalfi with the Arab World,” 299.

30.
   emergence of the Fatimids: Hitti,
History of the Arabs,
618–19.

31.
   “people, called Andalusians”: Severus ibn al-Muqaffa, in Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
83.

32.
   Taxation was moderate: Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
107.

33.
   Leo of Tripoli’s: Kaminiates,
Capture of Thessalonica,
70 (p. 115); Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
6, 40, 167–68; and Makrypoulias, “Byzantine Expeditions.”

34.
   The Kalbids raided al-Andalus: Hitti,
History of the Arabs,
521.

35.
   river and lake operations: Cosentino, “Constans II and the Byzantine Navy,” 578–79, 582–83.

36.
   ships were considerably smaller: Ibid., 581; Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
133.

37.
   
dromon
: Warships were known by various names, including
pamphylion, chelandion,
and the smaller
karabion,
but how they differed is hard to determine. Pryor, “From Dromon to Galea,” 94–97; Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
166–70, 260–64; Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
126; and Agius,
Classic Ships of Islam,
273, 334–48.

38.
   fitted with a spur: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
143–44, 203–10; Cosentino, “Constans II and the Byzantine Navy,” 583.

39.
   to carry horses:
Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
307–9, 320–25.

40.
   permanent regiments: Ahrweiler,
Byzance et la mer,
19–22.

41.
   
karabisianoi
:
Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
pp. xlii, 32; Cosentino, “Constans II and the Byzantine Navy,” 602. The word
karab,
“war galley,” originated in Muslim Egypt and was adopted by the Byzantines.

42.
   naval themes: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
32, 46–47, 88.

43.
   ports of different sizes: Ahrweiler,
Byzance et la mer,
422–25;
shipyards:
435–36.

44.
   conscription: Haldon, “Military Service, Military Lands, and the Status of Soldiers,” 27–28, 53, 65–66.

45.
   “God made me an emperor”: In Lopez,
Commercial Revolution,
66. See McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
14.

46.
   imperial precedence: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
390–91.

47.
   “Such Russes”: Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor,
Russian Primary Chronicle,
Year 6415 (907 ce), 65.

48.
   “At worst, Islam was hostile”: Planhol,
Islam et la mer,
42.

49.
   “ ‘The Sea is a great creature’ ”: Ibn Khaldun,
Muqaddimah,
2.33 (vol. 2:39).

50.
   “It is God”: Quran 45:12.

51.
   
dar al-sina’ca
: McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
238–39, 526–28.

52.
   Muslims built others: Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
23–50.

53.
   acacia plantations: Lombard, “Arsenaux et bois de marine,” 131.

54.
   an arsenal at Akka: Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
51–63.

55.
   sources of support: Picard, “
Bahriyyun
, émirs et califes,” 419–20, 425, 433–34, 443–44; Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
88, 95–106; and Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
51.

56.
   
Muhajirun
: Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
105.

57.
   “fulfill their expedition”: In ibid., 102–3.

58.
   three-part scale: Christides, “Milaha.”

59.
   “from this time”: In Bury,
History of the Eastern Roman Empire,
293.

60.
   “men of the sea”: Ibn al-Quttiya,
History of the Conquest of Spain,
in Picard, “
Bahriyyun,
émirs et califes,” 428.

61.
   impressment: Bramoullé, “Recruiting Crews in the Fatimid Navy,” 5, 9, 11–14.

62.
   “were at the same time”: Procopius,
Vandalic Wars,
3.11.15 (vol. 2:105–7).

63.
   “He should check”: In Christides, “Two Parallel Naval Guides,” 56.

64.
   had no other function: Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
53–56.

65.
   “Moors”: Picard, “
Bahriyyun,
émirs et califes,” 429–31, 437–38.

66.
   arsenals at Seville: Ibid., 429.

67.
   unless the outcome: Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
60.

68.
   surviving manuals: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
175–88, and their translations of:
The Naval Battles of Syrianos Magistros,
455–81;
The Naval Warfare of the Emperor Leo [VI],
483–519; the
Naval Warfare
commissioned by Basil, 521–45; Nikephoros Ouranos,
On Fighting at Sea,
571–605; and Muhammad Ibn Mankali, “Remarks on Sea Warfare,” 645–66. See Christides, “Two Parallel Naval Guides.”

69.
   long-range weapons: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
379–83.

70.
   “manufactured a naval fire”: Theophanes,
Chronicle,
493–94. As heirs to the Roman Empire, the Byzantines called themselves Romans and the weapon “Roman fire,” as well as “prepared,” “artificial,” and “liquid” fire. “
Greek fire” is a twelfth-century coinage used by crusaders for a variety of incendiary weapons.

71.
   “The fire to be hurled”: Anna Comnena,
Alexiad,
11 (p. 360).

72.
   “anathematized”:
Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
De Administrando Imperio,
13.85–90 (pp. 69–71).

73.
   available to Muslim fleets: Christides,
Conquest of Crete,
63.

74.
   “Every ship”: Al-Muqaddasi,
Best Divisions,
11. See Haldane, “Fire-Ship of Al-Salih Ayyub,” 139.

75.
   “something which was never”:
Biography of the Patriarch Michael,
in Kubiak, “Byzantine Attack on Damietta,” 47.

76.
   fireproof clothing: Christides, “Fireproofing of War Machines,” 13–14.

77.
   protective chain mail: Pryor and Jeffreys,
Age of the Dromon,
381.

78.
   naval stores: Ahrweiler,
Byzance et la mer,
427.

79.
   supplies of wood: Pryor,
Geography, Technology and War,
7; Lombard, “Arsenaux et bois de marine,” 132, 136–37.

80.
   
annona
: McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
87, 104–5, 108–10;
population of Rome:
66.

81.
   Jeddah, established in 646:
Located 70 kilometers from
Mecca and 420 kilometers from
Medina, Jeddah replaced the older port of al-Shu’ayba.

82.
   Canal of the Commander of the Faithful: Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
24–25; Fahmy,
Muslim Sea-power in the Eastern Mediterranean,
23–24, 27.

83.
   caused the population to fall: Hourani,
Arab Seafaring,
60.

84.
   transalpine trade: McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
79.

85.
   slave and lumber trades: Ibid., 729–32, 761–77; Lombard, “Arsenaux et bois de marine,” 133–37.

86.
   “marmalades, concentrated juices”: Khalilieh,
Admiralty and Maritime Laws,
300, 314.

87.
   “Women on board”: Mawardi,
Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya
(The ordinances of government), in Khalilieh,
Admiralty and Maritime Laws,
77.

88.
   “If thou sailest”: Al-Baladhuri,
Origins of the Islamic State,
1:235; Fahmy,
Muslim Naval Organisation,
105.

89.
   “[T]he barbarians”: Kaminiates,
Capture of Thessalonica,
66–67.

90.
   to end the traffic: McCormick,
Origins of the European Economy,
765–66.

91.
   interest rates: Laiou, “Byzantine Traders and Seafarers,” 80; Runciman, “Byzantine Trade and Industry,” 143–45.

92.
   Rhodian Sea Law: Ashburner,
The Rhodian Sea-Law
.

93.
   
Treatise Concerning the Leasing of Ships
: Khalilieh,
Admiralty and Maritime Laws,
21–22. The author is Muhammad ibn Umar al-Kinani al-Andalusi al-Iskandarini (d. 923).

94.
   “Whoever hires”:
Treatise Concerning the Leasing of Ships,
in ibid., 274.

95.
   “company”: Jackson, “From Profit-Sailing to Wage-Sailing,” 605–28; Pérez-Mallaína,
Spain’s Men of the Sea,
195.

96.
   load lines: Khalilieh,
Admiralty and Maritime Laws,
37.

97.
   freight charges: Ibid., 126–28, 148.

98.
   lending money at interest: Goitein,
Mediterranean Society,
1:255; Lopez,
Commercial Revolution,
73.

99.
   extended a sea loan: Pryor, “Origins of the Commenda Contract,” 22–23.

100.
   the pope condemned: Roover, “Early Examples of Marine Insurance,” 175.

101.
   “capital, labor”: Pryor, “Origins of the Commenda Contract,” 19.

102.
   
societas maris
: Byrne, “Commercial Contracts of the Genoese,” 135–49.

103.
   “a semi loan”:
Babylonian Talmud,
in Pryor, “Origins of the Commenda Contract,” 26.

104.
   
qirad
:
Pryor, “Origins of the Commenda Contract,” 29–36.