The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World (120 page)

104.
   Sinan (Shinan) wreck: Green and Kim, “Shinan and Wando Sites”; Kim and Keith, “14th-Century Cargo.”

105.
   “The Chinese vessels”: Ibn Battuta,
Travels
, 4:813. Chinese texts first discuss the flamethrower, or a device for “dispersing fierce incendiary oil,” in the Song Dynasty.

106.
   60 meters: Sleeswyk, “
Liao
and Displacement,” 12. The Chinese were apparently not alone in building such monumental ships, and the French traveler Augustin de Beaulieu described how “in 1629 the
Acehnese built a grandiose galley about a hundred metres long.” See Reid,
Expansion and Crisis
, 42, citing
Mémoires d’un voyage aux Indes orientales, 1619–1622
:
un marchand normand à Sumatra
. The Chinese use of multiple planking—in effect creating a laminated hull—would have made a significant difference in the longitudinal strength, and therefore length, of the hull.

107.
   Less contested: Ma Huan,
Overall Survey,
10; Dreyer,
Zheng He,
104–5. Zheng He organized but did not accompany the second expedition.

1.
   Some of the islands: Abulafia, “Neolithic Meets Medieval,” 255, 259.

2.
   evidence of human habitation: Pliny,
Natural History,
6.37.202–5 (vol. 2:489–91).

3.
   Almoravid expedition: Picard,
L’Océan Atlantique Musulman,
34.

4.
   ousted by Castilian rivals: Fernández-Armesto, “Medieval Atlantic Exploration,” 46–51.

5.
   prevailing northeast winds: Fernández-Armesto,
Before Columbus,
153.

6.
   Isola de Legname: Verlinden, “European Participation,” 73; the map is by Nicolo de Pasqualin. According to Cadamosto, the first settlers cleared the land on
Madeira by burning the trees. “So great was the first conflagration, that this [governor] Zuanconzales … was forced, with all the men, women, and children, to flee its fury and take refuge in the sea, where they remained, up to their necks in water, and without food or drink, for two days and two nights” (Crone,
Voyages of Cadamosto,
9).

7.
   Genoese mariners: Epstein,
Genoa and the Genoese,
202; Fernández-Armesto, “Spanish Atlantic Voyages and Conquests,” 138.

8.
   Pessagno and his heirs: Verlinden, “European Participation,” 71–73.

9.
   Catalan Atlas: Woodward, “Medieval Mappaemundi,” 315. See Fernández-Armesto,
Before Columbus,
156–57.

10.
   “As for his skill”: Chaucer,
Canterbury Tales,
“Prologue,” ll. 401–10 (p. 30).

11.
   first printed sailing directions: Jonkers, “Sailing Directions,” 460.

12.
   
Lo Compasso da Navigare
: Campbell, “Portolan Charts,” 382.

13.
   northern European instructions: Unger,
Ship in the Medieval Economy,
175.

14.
   “An [when] ye come”: In Taylor,
Haven-Finding Art,
135; “2 parts over the sea” means two-thirds of the way.

15.
   “If it should happen”: Jados,
Consulate of the Sea,
§251 (p. 157). See
The Customs of the Sea,
in Twiss,
Black Book,
3:433–34.

16.
   “if a ship is lost”:
Black Book,
in Twiss,
Black Book
, 1:129. The
Black Book
is believed to have been compiled between the reigns of Edward III (1327–77) and Henry VI (1422–61).

17.
   dead reckoning: This expression, as written, dates from the seventeenth century; the idea that it comes from “deduced reckoning” is a mid-twentieth-century fiction.

18.
   “[S]ailors, as they sail over the sea”: Neckham,
De Naturis Rerum,
book 2, chap. 98, in C.N.B., “Alexander on the Compass Needle,” 64.

19.
   “When clouds prevent sailors”: Vincent of Beauvais, in Taylor,
Haven-Finding Art,
94.

20.
   “half winds”: Taylor,
Haven-Finding Art,
100, 111.

21.
   portolan, or sea chart: Campbell, “Portolan Charts.”

22.
   mariner’s astrolabe: Paselk, “Navigational Instruments.”

23.
   A Genoese contract: Friel, “Carrack,” 78.

24.
   “ships”—
naves
: Ibid., 79.

25.
   caravel: Elbl, “Caravel”; Phillips, “Iberian Ships,” 220–28.

26.
   
qarib
: Agius,
Classic Ships of Islam,
271–74. Ibn Battuta uses
qarib
as a generic term for fishing and pearling boats in the Persian Gulf.

27.
   “the Navigator”: Russell,
Prince Henry,
8–9.

28.
   capture of Ceuta: Ibid., 31–34.

29.
   exploitation of the Madeira Islands: Ibid., 88–99.

30.
   Cape Bojador—the Bulging Cape:
“A wise pilot will … pass Bojador eight leagues
out at sea.… Because Cape Bojador is most dangerous, as a reef of rock juts out in the sea more than four or five leagues, several ships have already been lost. This cape is very low and covered with sand … in ten fathoms you cannot see the land because it is so low.” Duarte Pacheco Pereira,
Esmeralda de situ orbis: (1506–1508),
in Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
69.

31.
   “Portuguese caravels are coming”: In Crone,
Voyages of Cadamosto,
17–18.

32.
   the Southern Cross:
Cadamosto’s reference to six stars probably refers to the four main stars in Crux and two from the constellation Centaur.

33.
   Cape Verde Islands: Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
103–7; Crone,
Voyages of Cadamosto,
xxxvi–xlii.
Distance covered:
Russell,
Prince Henry,
342.

34.
   inability to communicate: Ibid., 314.

35.
   no one considered: Winius, “Enterprise Focused on India,” 90–92.

36.
   These brutal campaigns: Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
110, 144–45, 213–14.

37.
   contemporary legal interpretation: Perruso, “Development of the Doctrine of
Res Communes,
” 74–85.

38.
   “justly and lawfully”:
Romanus Pontifex,
in Davenport,
European Treaties,
23.

39.
   “equipped or provisioned”: Treaty of Alcáçovas, in Davenport,
European Treaties,
44.

40.
   circumnavigating Africa: Verlinden, “Big Leap Under Dom João II,” 70.

41.
   “which enters the sea”: Barros,
Asia,
dec. 1, book 3, chap. 3, in Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
155.

42.
   “the Guinea Sea”: Barros,
Asia,
dec. 1, book 3, chap. 5, in Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
164.

43.
   Domestic problems: Subrahmanyam,
Career and Legend,
43–57.

44.
   “that he would sail”: Las Casas,
Las Casas on Columbus,
43. On the direction of Columbus’s voyages, see Wey Gómez,
The Tropics of Empire,
37–45.

45.
   he failed: Fernández-Armesto,
Columbus,
192.

46.
   Columbus served his apprenticeship: Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
87–99; Fernández-Armesto,
Columbus,
18–19.

47.
   “the world was buzzing”: Las Casas,
Las Casas on Columbus,
31.

48.
   northern voyages took him: Fernández-Armesto,
Columbus,
6, 18.

49.
   especially its great size: Fernández-Armesto, “Medieval Atlantic Exploration,” 65.

50.
   Shortly before the start: Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
140. The
Sargasso Sea is a large area of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by a number of currents but within which there is virtually no current and often no wind. Passage through it is further complicated by the presence of masses of sargassum weed. It lies roughly between 20º–35ºN and 30º–70ºW.

51.
   “Men of Cathay”: In ibid., 105.

52.
   “On the island of Flores”: Colón,
Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus,
24.
Cape Verga is on the coast of Africa, 10ºN.

53.
   “the perimeter of the earth”: Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
110.

54.
   excessive compensation: Nader,
Rights of Discovery,
63–64.

55.
   normally earned: Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
143.

56.
   Luis de Santángel: Ibid., 132.

57.
   “a central figure”: Fernández-Armesto,
Amerigo,
52.

58.
   the caravels
Niña
and
Pinta
: Experts’ conjectures on the linear measurements of Columbus’s ships differ widely. The minimum dimensions proposed are:
Niña,
15m by 5m;
Pinta,
17m by 5m; and
Santa María
, 18m by 6m. See Elbl, “Caravel”; Pastor,
Ships of Christopher Columbus
; and Phillips, “Iberian Ships.”

59.
   Taino island of Guanahaní:
The exact location of Columbus’s first landing is based on educated guesswork. Prevailing opinion favors San Salvador; other claimants—all in the
Bahamas and within 250 nautical miles of each other—are the Caicos Islands, Semana Cay, and Cat Island. The English called San Salvador Watlings Island until the island’s strong claim to an historical pedigree was established.

60.
   “which I believe”: In Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
163.

61.
   “I am not taking much pains”: In ibid., 163.

62.
   “hearing the news”: Barros,
Asia,
dec. 1, book 3, chap. 11, in Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
171.

63.
   a hundred leagues west:
Inter Caetera,
in Davenport,
European Treaties,
74n18, 76. On the broader implications of dividing the ocean, see Mancke, “Early Modern Expansion.” On dates of the bulls, see Linden, “Alexander VI,” 3–8.

64.
   “found or to be found”: “The Bull
Dudum Siquidem,
” in Davenport,
European Treaties,
82.

65.
   stealing gold and women: Phillips and Phillips,
Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
199; Fernández-Armesto,
Columbus,
104.

66.
   “earthly paradise”: Columbus, “Letter of Columbus to Their Majesties,” in Jane,
Select Documents,
2:34. The rivers in Genesis 2.11–14 are the Pison (thought to be the Ganga or Indus), Gihon (Nile), Hiddekel (Tigris), and
Euphrates.

67.
   in chains: Fernández-Armesto,
Columbus,
153.

68.
   the last two years of his life: Ibid., 177–84.

69.
   his writings implausibly suggest: Fernández-Armesto,
Amerigo,
67.

70.
   Martin Waldseemüller: Ibid., 185–91; Meurer, “Cartography in the German Lands,” 1204–7.

71.
   “named Vasco da Gama”: Barros,
Asia,
dec. 1, book 4, chap. 1, in Subrahmanyam,
Career and Legend,
54.

72.
   “a youth who”: In Subrahmanyam,
Career and Legend,
93.

73.
   hired a pilot: This was long believed to be the navigator Ibn Majid, but this has been proved false. See Winius, “Enterprise Focused on India,” 115.

74.
   second-rate offerings: Subrahmanyam,
Career and Legend,
136, 142.

75.
   “Lord of the Conquest”: In Radulet, “Vasco da Gama,” 137.

76.
   Pedro Álvares Cabral: Subrahmanyam,
Career and Legend,
174–84; Greenlee,
Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral.

77.
   Cabral bombarded the city: Winius, “
Estado da India
on the Subcontinent,” 193.

78.
   São Thomé de Meliapur: Winius, “Portugal’s Shadow Empire,” 248.

79.
   Francisco Serrão: Barbosa, Magalhães, and Dames,
The Book of Duarte Barbosa,
200.

80.
   “Please God the Almighty”: Sebastian Alvarez to Dom Manuel, in Stanley,
First Voyage Round the World,
pp. xliv–xlv. Credited with discovering Newfoundland for Portugal, the brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Reals were lost at sea in 1501 and 1502, respectively.

81.
   “We ate biscuit”: Pigafetta,
Magellan’s Voyage Around the World,
1:83–85.

82.
   “a true Portuguese”: Camoens,
Lusiads,
book 10 (p. 246).

83.
   Portuguese and Spanish experts: Bourne, “Demarcation Line of Pope Alexander VI,” 209.

84.
   “discovery, conquest and colonization”: In Schurz,
Manila Galleon,
21.

85.
   “to establish a route”: In Schurz,
Manila Galleon,
21.

86.
   “With this the foundation”: Martin de Zuñiga, in Schurz,
Manila Galleon,
27. See Spate,
Spanish Lake,
161.

87.
   agreed to annul the boundaries: Davenport,
European Treaties,
170–71.

1.
   “they crawled like lice”: Blussé and Fernández-Armesto,
Shifting Communities and Identity Formation,
2.

2.
   “make a royal model map”: In Fernández-Armesto,
Amerigo,
180.

3.
   Jews and unconverted Muslims: Elliott,
Empires of the Atlantic World,
51.

4.
   The New Spain fleet: Phillips,
Six Galleons,
11–13; Pérez-Mallaína,
Spain’s Men of the Sea,
9–11.

5.
   “neither house, hut”: Hernando de Castro, writing from Santiago de Cuba to his partner in Seville, in Lockhart and Otte,
Letters and People of the Spanish Indies,
26.

6.
   four hundred Spanish households: Pérez-Mallaína,
Spain’s Men of the Sea,
13.

7.
   “These two towns”: Juan Cristóbal Calvete des Estrella, in Cook,
Born to Die,
105–6.

8.
   Buenos Aires: Rocca, “Buenos Aires,” 323–24.

9.
   Realejo (Corinto, Nicaragua): Radell and Parsons, “Realejo.”

10.
   five or six months: Spate,
Spanish Lake,
106.

11.
   “Put all the Guinea countries”: In Thomas,
Slave Trade,
110. “The
peça
[piece]
de Indias
was a prime young male slave; all other slaves of both sexes counted less than a
peça
. This term might, therefore, include two or even three individuals” (Boxer,
Portuguese Seaborne Empire,
100).

12.
   fifty thousand more Africans: Thomas,
Slave Trade,
134; Boxer,
Portuguese Seaborne Empire,
104.

13.
   number of ships: Boxer,
Portuguese Seaborne Empire,
104.

14.
   diplomacy and aggression: Russell-Wood,
World on the Move,
15, 21–22.

15.
   “the more fortresses”: In Earle and Villiers,
Albuquerque
, 10.

16.
   Afonso de Albuquerque: Ibid., 1–3.

17.
   “I have taken Goa”: In ibid., 16, 201. See Albuquerque,
Commentaries,
3.258; and Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
250–51.

18.
   “And this is the result”: Albuquerque,
Commentaries,
3:260.

19.
   “often used to say”: Ibid., 3:264.

20.
   “Then I burned the city”: In Earle and Villiers,
Albuquerque,
17.

21.
   “I am very sure”: In ibid., 81.

22.
   “Whoever is lord of Malacca”: Pires,
Suma Oriental,
2:287.

23.
   sailed for the Spice Islands: Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
296–300.

24.
   spice cargoes at Alexandria: Lane, “Venetian Shipping,” 11.

25.
   seized Gallipoli: Imber,
Ottoman Empire,
287–92.

26.
   “the Sultan gave orders”: In Kortepeter, “Ottoman Imperial Policy,” 89.

27.
   “won the key”: Sultan Bayezid II, in Kortepeter, “Ottoman Imperial Policy,” 92.

28.
   destroyed an Ottoman fleet: Brummett,
Ottoman Seapower,
69, 116–17.

29.
   “Urge the Mamluk sultan”: In ibid., 43.

30.
   “if you desire”: Albuquerque,
Commentaries,
2:111–18, in Brummett,
Ottoman Seapower,
45.

31.
   “new charts”: In Casale,
Ottoman Age of Exploration,
25.

32.
   “freedom for the Muslims of India”: In Casale,
Ottoman Age of Exploration,
68.

33.
   Sefer Reis: Casale,
Ottoman Age of Exploration,
100–101, 110–14.

34.
   “the volume of spices”: Da Silva,
Corpo Diplomático Portuguez,
9:136, in Casale,
Ottoman Age of Exploration,
115.

35.
   “in Sind, Cambay, Dabul”: Diogo do Couto,
Década,
8a, in Casale, “Ottoman Administration,” 180.

36.
   spices continued to reach Alexandria:
Braudel,
Mediterranean,
1:550.

37.
   “When anger is felt”: In Casale, “Ottoman Administration,” 185–86.

38.
   different approaches: Casale,
Ottoman Age of Exploration,
143–45.

39.
   dig canals: Ibid., 135–37.

40.
   “His Majesty’s Servant Lutfi”: Ibid., 123–29.

41.
   “500 Turks”: Ibid., 133.

42.
   twenty thousand Zimba: Ibid., 174–76.

43.
   Indian merchants: These were known by a variety of names depending on their religion and place of origin. Hindus included
banias
from Gujarat, Chetties and Kelings (Tamil Nadu), and Oriyas (
Orissa); Chulias were Tamil Muslims. See McPherson,
Indian Ocean,
155; Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 436, 440–41.

44.
   manned by Asians: Boxer,
Portuguese Seaborne Empire,
57.

45.
   “without any doubt”: Gemelli Careri (1584), in ibid., 205.

46.
   “some dying there”: Linschoten,
Voyage,
2:230.

47.
   marry natives: Mathew,
Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century,
215–16.

48.
   Surat: Subrahmanyam, “Note on the Rise of Surat,” 32; Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 444, 448, 451; and Chaudhuri, “Surat Revisited,” 18.

49.
   “When they are still”: Inspector Hendrik Adriaan van Reede tot Drakenstein to the Dutch factors, Feb. 21, 1687; in Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 435.

50.
   into Mughal coins: Prakash, “Indian Maritime Merchant, 1500–1800,” 442.

51.
   Mocha: Ibid., 444–46.

52.
   “King Manuel of Portugal”: In Earle and Villiers,
Albuquerque,
79.

53.
   guns and mercenaries: Glete,
Warfare at Sea,
72.

54.
   about 5 percent: Prakash, “Asian Merchants and the Portuguese Trade in Asia,” 133. There was a range of about 3.5 to 8 percent depending on the port and whether the tax was levied on exports or imports. See Diffie and Winius,
Foundations,
321.

55.
   Nor did possession: Mathew,
Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century,
210.

56.
   banning all maritime trade: Wills, “Relations with Maritime Europeans,” 339–40.

57.
   
wokou,
“Japanese pirates”: So,
Japanese Piracy,
1. The Japanese word is
wako
.

58.
   “the Portuguese sailed”: Zhu Wan memorial of Feb. 5, 1548, in So,
Japanese Piracy,
55.

59.
   clocks and other mechanical devices: Zheng,
China on the Sea,
141–47.

60.
   served as middlemen: So,
Japanese Piracy,
69.

61.
   harquebus: Brown, “Impact of Firearms on Japanese Warfare,” 236–39.

62.
   three hundred thousand Japanese Christians: Sansom,
History of Japan, 1334–1615,
372; Massarella, “Jesuits and Japan.”

63.
   Christianity was outlawed: Sansom,
History of Japan, 1615–1867,
39–45.

64.
   Japan remained off-limits: Sansom,
History of Japan, 1334–1615,
176; Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 262–63.

65.
   Hideyoshi also: Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 265–70.

66.
   “sea captains and fishermen”: In ibid., 264.

67.
   “On its upper deck”: Yi Pun, “Biography of Yi Sun-sin,” in Yi Sun-sin,
Imjin Changch’o,
210.

68.
   battle of Myeongryang: Elisonas, “Inseparable Trinity,” 287.

69.
   “a fitting end”: Ballard,
Influence of the Sea,
66.

70.
   reported at Jeddah: Lane, “Mediterranean Spice Trade,” 30–31.

71.
   per capita consumption: Wake, “Changing Pattern,” 392–95.

72.
   Malabar pepper crop: Mathew,
Portuguese Trade with India in the Sixteenth Century,
213.

73.
   “responsible for more espionage”:
Braudel,
Mediterranean,
1:572.

74.
   grain ships: Brummett,
Ottoman Seapower,
135.

75.
   an elaborate black market: Braudel,
Mediterranean,
1:591–94; Imber,
Ottoman Empire,
300.

76.
   growth of Mediterranean trade: Braudel,
Mediterranean,
1:616, 622.

77.
   “capitulations”: Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 188–95, 188, 374.

78.
   protection of the French flag: Faroqhi,
Ottoman Empire and the World Around It,
60–61, 144–47.

79.
   large, heavily armed ships: Andrews,
Trade, Plunder and Settlement,
99.

80.
   ignoring papal interdicts: Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 370, 374, 380.

81.
   burden of reprisals: Wood,
History of the Levant Company,
25–26, 30–31.

82.
   The Dutch followed: Braudel,
Mediterranean,
1:599–602; Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 375–76.

83.
   most easily done at Antwerp: Paviot, “Trade Between Portugal and the Southern Netherlands,” 26; Wee, “Structural Changes,” 28–29; and Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism,
3:144–46.

84.
   “a heavy yearly expenditure”: In Boxer,
Dutch Seaborne Empire,
6.

85.
   a majority of ships: Palmer,
The Baltic,
64; Barbour, “Dutch and English Merchant Shipping,” 267.

86.
   virtually all its naval stores: Barbour, “Dutch and English Merchant Shipping,” 272.

87.
   sixty-four shares: Israel,
Dutch Primacy,
21. A memorandum of the English General Shipowners Society dated Dec. 11, 1823, explains the rationale for dividing a ship evenly—“upon the binary principle of halving the ship, and proportions under each, down to a sixty-fourth part”—that is, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 shares. Lloyd’s Register, “Infosheet No. 25: 64 Shares,” online at
LR.org
.

88.
   
fluit
: Unger, “
Fluit,
” 115–23.

89.
   Antwerp was an early casualty: Wee, “Structural Changes,” 30.

90.
   encroaching on the English and Hanse trade: Israel,
Dutch Primacy,
46–48.

91.
   “robbed homewards by Flemings”: Purchas,
Hakluytus Posthumus,
12:50.

92.
   “the Russian Mesopotamia”: Kerner,
Urge to the Sea,
35.

93.
   “northwards, north-eastwards”: In Willan,
Early History of the Russia Company,
6.

94.
   more diverse selection: Israel,
Dutch Primacy,
44.

95.
   port at Archangel: Kerner,
Urge to the Sea,
179.

96.
   Muscovy turned to the east: Ibid., 41–43.

97.
   “being famed for attacking ships”:
Remezov Chronicle,
3, in Armstrong,
Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia,
91.

98.
   via river and portage: Armstrong,
Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia,
18–19; Hellie,
Economy and Material Culture of Russia
, 479–81.

99.
   “no kind of dues”: Charter from Tsar Ivan Vasil’yevich to Grigorey Stroganov, Apr. 4, 1558, in Armstrong,
Yermak’s Campaign in Siberia,
281. See Kerner,
Urge to the Sea,
73.

100.
   “a Countrey that hath”: Raleigh,
Discoverie of … Guiana
(1596), 96.

101.
   staked competing claims: Simsarian, “The Acquisition of Legal Title to Terra Nullius,” 111, 121–28.

102.
   “For those who used the sea lines”: Glete,
Warfare at Sea,
60.

103.
   monopolize the use of violence: Rodger, “New Atlantic,” 233–36.

104.
   “very well treated”: Antonio Barbarigo, in Capponi,
Victory of the West,
199.

105.
   slaves and convicts: Capponi,
Victory of the West,
196–98; Imber,
Ottoman Empire,
302–7.

106.
   a new style of rowing: Capponi,
Victory of the West,
194–99.
A scaloccio
is of uncertain derivation, possibly related to the Italian
scala,
meaning ladder.

107.
   access to bases:
Domingues, “State of Portuguese Naval Forces,” 191–92.

108.
   Portuguese ship types: Ibid., 195. See Elbl, “Caravel,” 97–87; and Phillips, “Galleon,” 100–102.

109.
   “the first ocean-going sailing ship”: Domingues, “Portuguese Naval Forces in the Sixteenth Century,” 195. See also Elbl, “Caravel,” 97–87; Phillips, “Galleon,” 100–102.

110.
   first printed shipbuilding manual: Diego García de Palacio’s
Instrucion nauthica, para el buen uso y regimiento de las naos su traça, y govierno conforme à la altura de México
(Nautical instruction, for the good use and management of ships, their design, and conduct in accordance with the latitude of Mexico), published in Mexico City. See Ferreiro,
Ships and Science,
47.

111.
   trend toward gigantism: The Danish
Engelen
and
Maria
displaced about 1,500–2,000 tons, the
Grand François
proved too big to sail, and
The Historie and Chronicles of Scotland
describes James IV’s
Michael
as “the greatest scheip and maist [most] of strength that ewer saillit Ingland or France” (Macdougall, “ ‘Greatest Scheip That Ewer Saillit’ ”).

112.
   English naval establishment: Rodger,
Safeguard of the Sea,
221–37.

113.
   Sound tolls: Glete,
Warfare at Sea,
114–15.