The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World (117 page)

105.
   “innovation of highest importance”: Lopez,
Commercial Revolution,
76.

106.
   “the lynch-pin”: Pryor, “Mediterranean Commerce in the Middle Ages,” 133.

107.
   “the ship … is broken up”: Statutes of Marseille, in ibid., 147.

108.
   “partnerships according to Muslim law”: In Goitein and Friedman, “
India Book,
” 12.

109.
   “if goods are thrown overboard”: Paulus,
Digest XIV,
in Ashburner,
Rhodian Sea-Law,
pp. cclii, 116–17. On jettison, see Khalilieh,
Admiralty and Maritime Laws,
150–94, and
Islamic Maritime Law,
87–105.

110.
   
Libro del Consulado del Mar
: Constable, “Problem of Jettison,” 215.

111.
   “if any one”: Ashburner,
Rhodian Sea Law,
chap. 9 (p. 87). According to Ashburner, “What the [
mina
] is equivalent to in this place … is impossible to say” (p. 90).

112.
   “chosen by lot”: Qadi Iyad,
Madhahib al-Hukkam,
235, in Khalilieh,
Islamic Maritime Law,
97.

113.
   human jettison: Constable, “Problem of Jettison,” 208–11.

1.
   paying duties: Middleton, “Early Medieval Port Customs,” 320–24.

2.
   Ohthere: Storli, “Ohthere and His World.”

3.
   “to investigate how far”: Bately, “Text and Translation,” 44–45.

4.
   Kaupang: Skre, “
Sciringes healh,
” 150.

5.
   Wulftsan: Jesch, “Who Was Wulfstan,” 29–31.

6.
   York: Lapidge,
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England,
497–99.

7.
   “for I cannot accept”: Herodotus,
Histories,
3.115 (p. 198).

8.
   The tin of Cornwall: Cunliffe,
Facing the Ocean,
304.

9.
   Vix krater: Cunliffe,
Extraordinary Voyage,
16; Boardman,
Greeks Overseas,
221–23.

10.
   Aude-Garonne-Gironde corridor:
Cunliffe,
Extraordinary Voyage,
55. Strabo describes this route: “from Narbo[nne] traffic goes inland for a short distance by the Atax [Aude] River, and then a greater distance by land to the Garumna [Garonne] River.… And the Garumna, too, flows to the ocean.”
Geography,
4.1.14 (vol. 2:211). See Cunliffe,
Facing the Ocean,
331–32.

11.
   between 6,860 and 7,150 kilometers: Cunliffe,
Extraordinary Voyage,
97;
latitudes:
61, 98–100, 132.

12.
   The
Classis Germanica
: Mason,
Roman Britain and the Roman Navy,
93, 105–6; Starr,
Roman Imperial Navy,
124–66.

13.
   lines of communication: Milne, “Maritime Traffic,” 82.

14.
   “all the bireme”: Tacitus,
Histories,
4.12 (p. 212), 5.23–24 (p. 285). See Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
25, 35–39.

15.
   Frankish tribes: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
30–31.

16.
   “some of them revolted”: Zosimus,
New History,
1.71.2 (p. 22). See Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
41, 48–49.

17.
   burning of the
Classis Germanica
: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power
, 60.

18.
   “sent letters to the cities”: Zosimus,
New History,
6.10.2 (p. 130).

19.
   “sent back news”: Bede,
History,
1.15 (p. 56).

20.
   barge excavated at Blackfriars: Marsden,
A Ship of the Roman Period
.

21.
   wreck from St. Peter Port: Rule and Monaghan,
Gallo-Roman Trading Vessel
.

22.
   ship burial at Sutton Hoo: Paine,
Ships of the World,
s.v.
Sutton Hoo
, citing Angela Care Evans,
The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial
(London: British Museum, 1986).

23.
   Lacus Flevo:
Kirby and Hinkkanen,
The Baltic and the North Seas,
8.

24.
   entrepôt at Ribe: Lebecq, “Northern Seas,” 649, 652, 654; Skovgaard-Petersen, “Making of the Danish Kingdom,” 172.

25.
   Skagerrak and Kattegat: Crumlin-Pedersen, “Boats and Ships of the Baltic Sea,” 245–47.

26.
   Saxon and Danish raids: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
89.

27.
   Chlocilaicus (Hygelac): Ibid., 114–26;
Beowulf,
ll. 1205–14, 2355–66, 2498–509, and 2912–21.

28.
   The Frisians’: Lebecq,
Marchands et navigateurs frisons,
105–9.

29.
   
Fossa Carolina
: Leitholdt et al., “Fossa Carolina.” For another interpretation of the canal’s purpose, see Squatriti, “Digging Ditches in Early Medieval Europe.”

30.
   Viken: Sawyer, “Viking Expansion,” 108.

31.
   “We and our fathers”: Alcuin of York,
Letter,
12 (p. 18).

32.
   southwesterly winds: Carver, “Pre-Viking Traffic,” 122.

33.
   sailing season: See Larson,
King’s Mirror
(13th century), 158, 161.

34.
   “The wind is fierce to-night”: In Ó Corráin, “Vikings in Ireland and Scotland,” 7.

35.
   “a Christian people”: Rimbert,
Life of Anskar
, 7 (p. 38).

36.
   “was especially suitable”: Ibid., 24 (p. 84).

37.
   Noirmoutier: Jones,
History of the Vikings,
211.

38.
   expeditions against al-Andalus: El-Hajji, “Andalusian Diplomatic Relations,” 70–81.

39.
   Danish prince Björn Ironside: This raid may have attacked the Italian port of Luni, but the details are confusing.

40.
   “bridge of ships”:
Cath Maige Tuired
(The Battle of Mag Tuired), in Ó Corráin, “Vikings in Ireland and Scotland,” 14.

41.
   
longphorts
: A coinage of medieval Irish annalists,
longphort
comes from the Latin (
navis
)
longa,
meaning longship, and
portus
, meaning landing place; Sheehan, “The
Longphort
in Viking Age Ireland,” 282–83.

42.
   “king of the Norwegian Vikings”:
Annals of Ulster,
in Ó Corráin, “Vikings in Ireland and Scotland,” 37.

43.
   “there were men”: Bessason,
Book of Settlements,
§1 (p. 114).

44.
   The pace of colonization: Magnússon,
Northern Sphinx,
10.

45.
   Birka: Ambrosiani, “Prehistory of Towns in Sweden,” 64–66.

46.
   Helgö: Holmqvist, “Helgö.”

47.
   west of the Vistula: Jöns, “Ports and
Emporia
of the Southern Coast”; Gimbutas,
The Balts,
143.

48.
   Staraya Ladoga:
Jones,
History of the Vikings,
250. The town is called Staraya (Old) Ladoga to distinguish it from Novaya Ladoga, founded nearer the lake by Peter the Great in 1703.

49.
   Novgorod: Birnbaum,
Lord Novgorod the Great.

50.
   “They said to themselves”: Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor,
Russian Primary Chronicle,
Year 6368–6370 (860–862 ce), 59–69. Varangian may come from an Old Norse word for “confederates.” The Greek name was
barangoi,
the Arabic
varank:
Jones,
History of the Vikings,
247. For a discussion of the “stranger as king,” see Fernández-Armesto, “Stranger-Effect in Early Modern Asia,” 181–85, 188–92.

51.
   “Whosoever come”: Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor,
Russian Primary Chronicle,
Year 6412–6415 (904–907), 64–65.

52.
   “there came”: Al-Masudi, in Dunlop,
History of the Jewish Khazars,
209–10.

53.
   island of Rügen: Jöns, “Ports and
Emporia
of the Southern Coast,” 173.

54.
   “quantities of such spices”: In Brutzkus, “Trade with Eastern Europe, 800–1200,” 33.
The account of ben Jacob (in Arabic, Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi) is preserved in a thirteenth-century cosmography by Zakariya al-Qazwini.

55.
   Coastal navigation: Marcus,
Conquest of the North Atlantic,
114–16.

56.
   “sunstone”: Seaver,
Frozen Echo,
16–18.

57.
   “well wooded and with low hills”:
Greenland Saga,
2, in Magnusson and Pálsson,
Vinland Sagas
, 52–54.

58.
   Greenlanders’ numbers too few: Wallace, “L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland,” 233.

59.
   year-round settlement: Ibid., 224;
occupied until about 1030
: 228. The name is a corruption of L’Anse au Méduse, Bay of the Jellyfish, as seventeenth-century French fishermen called the area.

60.
   until about 1030: Ibid., 226, 230; Seaver,
Frozen Echo
, 23–24.

61.
   “Vinland because vines”: Adam of Bremen,
History of the Archbishops,
§ xxxix (38) (p. 219).

62.
   “There came also a ship”:
Skálholtsannáll hinn forni
, in Magnusson,
Vikings,
173–74.

63.
   Norse Greenland seems: McGhee, “Epilogue,” 243.

64.
   English cod fishermen: Seaver,
Frozen Echo,
181.

65.
   Anglo-Saxon armies sailed north: Rodger,
Safeguard of the Sea,
18–19.

66.
   “since Angles and Saxons”: Swanton,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,
Year 937 (pp. 109–10).

67.
   Danegeld: Magnusson,
Vikings,
186–88.

68.
   Duchy of Normandy: Flodoard of Reims,
Annals,
pp. xx–xxii.

69.
   Saint Patrick was enslaved: De Paor,
Patrick,
22–26, 221, 227.

70.
   Northumbrian who was taken: Bede,
History
, 4.23 (pp. 244–45).

71.
   “a precious garment”: Oddr,
Saga of Olaf Tryggvason
, 7 (pp. 44–45).

72.
   “He is captured”: Warner of Rouen,
Moriuht
, 65–76 (p. 77);
“full to bursting”:
271–72 (p. 91); and
“a quarter”:
279 (p. 95).

73.
   massacre all the Danes: Magnusson,
Vikings,
188.

74.
   “Leapt from the bloodied gunwales”: Snorri Sturluson,
King Harald’s Saga,
§63 (p. 114).

75.
   250 or more ships: De Vries,
Norwegian Invasion,
241–42.

76.
   “travelled into England”: Swanton,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,
Year 1085 (pp. 215–16).

77.
   cohorts of a hundred men: Tacitus,
Germania,
§6, 12 (pp. 106, 111).

78.
   
Census of the Men of Alba
: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
91; Rodger,
Safeguard of the Sea
, 5.

79.
   levies of ships and men: Rodger,
Safeguard of the Sea,
19–20; Hollister,
Anglo-Saxon Military Institutions,
10–11, 38–39, 85, 115; and Jones,
History of the Vikings,
93.

80.
   “No man younger”: Oddr,
Saga of Olaf Tryggvason,
53 (p. 104).

81.
   “Here William orders”: Bayeux Tapestry. There is no text for the shipbuilding scene.

82.
   “gathered a greater ship-army”: Swanton,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles,
Year 1066 (pp. 194–96).

83.
   battle of Svold: Oddr,
Saga of Olaf Tryggvason,
67–75 (pp. 118–34);
“much longer and higher”:
70 (p. 124);
“extensively reinforced”:
72 (p. 126); and “
posted small boats”:
74 (p. 132).

84.
   line of development: Christensen, “Proto-Viking, Viking and Norse Craft,” 72–75.

85.
   seventy miles per day: Carver, “Pre-Viking Traffic,” 121; Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
107. A six-day (144-hour) passage from Shetland to Iceland yields a speed of 2.9 knots.

86.
   Broighter “boat”: Cunliffe,
Extraordinary Voyage,
103–5.

87.
   rig their hide boats: McGrail, “Boats and Boatmanship,” 46; Cunliffe,
Extraordinary Voyage,
119.

88.
   “The Gauls’ own ships”:
Caesar,
Conquest of Gaul,
3.1 (p. 98).

89.
   “Perfectly equipped”: Ibid., 3.1 (p. 99).

90.
   “To enable them to be loaded”: Ibid., 5.2 (pp. 128–29).

91.
   Roman-era vessels: Höckmann, “Late Roman Rhine Vessels”; Höckmann, “Late Roman River Craft”; and Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
70–75.

92.
   “frame-based” shipbuilding: McGrail, “Romano-Celtic Boats and Ships,” 141.

93.
   “The shape of their ships”: Tacitus,
Germania,
44 (p. 138).

94.
   migration under oars alone: Haywood,
Dark Age Naval Power,
108–9.

95.
   Sutton Hoo ship: Paine,
Ships of the World,
s.v.
Sutton Hoo,
citing Angela Care Evans,
The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial
(London: British Museum Press, 1986), and Edwin Gifford and Joyce Gifford, “The Sailing Performance of Anglo-Saxon Ships as Derived from the Building and Trials of Half-Scale Models of the Sutton Hoo and Graveney Ship Finds,”
Mariner’s Mirror
82 (1996): 131–53.

96.
   more than twenty ships: Crumlin-Pedersen, “Boats and Ships of the Baltic Sea,” 235–42. In October 2011, archaeologists announced the find of a Viking burial with a five-meter-long vessel on the Ardnamurchan peninsula in western
Scotland.

97.
   warhorses in ships: Bachrach, “On the Origins of William the Conqueror’s Horse Transports.”

98.
   aesthetically dramatic: Sjövold,
Oseberg Find;
Brøgger and Sheltig,
Viking Ships;
and Christensen, “Proto-Viking, Viking and Norse Craft.”

99.
   ships scuttled off Skuldelev: Crumlin-Pedersen, “Skuldelev Ships”; Olsen and Crumlin-Pedersen,
Five Viking Ships from Roskilde Fjord.

100.
   “seventy-four ells”: Oddr,
Saga of Olaf Tryggvason,
53 (p. 103). In early Iceland, an ell was about 49 centimeters, but it later measured 54–57 cm. See Dennis,
Laws of Early Iceland,
244.

101.
   “had the ship painted”: Oddr,
Saga of Olaf Tryggvason,
53 (p. 103).

102.
   “On one side lions”: Campbell,
Encomium Emmae Reginae,
§4, 13.

103.
   “such tackle as is needed”: Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
De Administrando Imperio,
9 (p. 61).

104.
   wine, that of Burgundy and the Seine: Wickham,
Inheritance of Rome,
547.