The Transformation of the World (224 page)

  36
. Quoted in C. L. Brown,
Moral Capital
, p. 8.

  37
. The prolific work of Seymour Drescher has been especially influential in the formation of this consensus.

  38
. Carey,
British Abolitionism
.

  39
. D. B. Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, p. 236.

  40
. Satre,
Chocolate on Trial
, pp. 77ff.

  41
. Keegan,
Colonial South Africa
, pp. 35f.

  42
. Dharma Kumar, “India,” in: Drescher and Engerman,
Historical Guide
, pp. 5–7.

  43
. Blackburn,
Overthrow
, p. 480; Bernecker,
Geschichte Haitis
, p. 69.

  44
. N. Schmidt,
L'Abolition de l'esclavage
, pp. 22ff.

  45
. Emmer,
Nederlandse slavenhandel
, pp. 205f.

  46
. See also, in a different perspective,
chapter 10
, above.

  47
. The precise figures are given in Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, Appendix, Tab. 1.

  48
. Drescher,
From Slavery to Freedom
, pp. 276f.

  49
. See the overview in Stewart,
Holy Warriors
. On the most famous (though perhaps not most influential) white abolitionist, see H. Mayer,
All on Fire
.

  50
. As a way into the huge literature on Lincoln and slavery, see Oakes,
The Radical and the Republican
, esp. pp. 43ff.; Foner,
Fiery Trial
.

  51
. D. B. Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, pp. 317f.

  52
. Zeuske,
Geschichte Kubas
, pp. 124 ff.; Schmidt-Nowara,
Empire and Antislavery
.

  53
. Viotti da Costa,
Brazilian Empire
, pp. 125–71; A. W. Marx,
Making Race
, p. 64.

  54
. Bernecker et al.,
Geschichte Brasiliens
, p. 210.

  55
. On slavery and Holocaust, see Drescher,
From Slavery to Freedom
, pp. 312–38.

  56
. Clarence-Smith,
Islam
, pp. 10f.

  57
. Ibid., pp. 100f.

  58
. Ibid., pp. 107f.

  59
. Ibid., p. 116.

  60
. Temperley,
White Dreams
.

  61
. Fundamental (though rather skeptical) on the possibilities of comparative slavery research is Zeuske,
Sklaven
, pp. 331–60. However, some authors such as Seymour Drescher have made very successful use of comparative methods.

  62
. See, e.g., F. Cooper,
Beyond Slavery
; and the important regional analyses in Temperley,
After Slavery
.

  63
. A key case study is R. J. Scott,
Degrees of Freedom
.

  64
. Stanley Engerman, “Comparative Approaches to the Ending of Slavery,” in: Temperley,
After Slavery
, pp. 281–300, at 288–90.

  65
. On the many strands of slavery in Africa, see the collective volume Miers and Roberts,
End of Slavery
, as well as F. Cooper et al.,
Beyond Slavery
, pp. 106–49 (on the significance of the year 1910 see p. 119).

  66
. This is emphasized in Berlin,
Generations of Captivity
, pp. 248–59.

  67
. Ibid., pp. 266f.

  68
. Keegan,
Colonial South Africa
finds them already before 1850, not only after the “mineral revolution.”

  69
. D. L. Lewis,
W.E.B. Du Bois
, p. 277.

  70
. Du Bois,
Writings
, p. 359. Thanks to Scaff,
Max Weber in America
, pp. 98–116, we now know that Max Weber, perhaps the greatest European observer of his time, was extraordinarily receptive to Du Bois's diagnosis.

  71
. The reasons for this development are still hotly debated. For a report on the controversies, see James Beeby and Donald G. Nieman, “The Rise of Jim Crow, 1880–1920,” in Bowles,
Companion
, pp. 336–47.

  72
. Fredrickson,
White Supremacy
, p. 197.

  73
. Winant,
The World Is a Ghetto
, pp. 103–5; A. W. Marx,
Making Race
, pp. 79, 178–90; Drescher,
From Slavery to Freedom
, pp. 146f.

  74
. R. J. Scott,
Degrees of Freedom
, pp. 253ff.

  75
. F. Cooper et al.,
Beyond Slavery
, p. 18.

  76
. Drescher,
Mighty Experiment
, pp. 158ff.; see also Holt,
Problem of Freedom
.

  77
. There is no adequate account of racism in the history of ideas, the closest to one being Mosse,
Final Solution
. A very brief introduction is Geulen,
Rassismus
.

  78
. Shimazu,
Japan, Race and Equality
; on the interpretation, see Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
, pp. 285–309.

  79
. Frank Becker, “Einleitung: Kolonialherrschaft und Rassenpolitik,” in idem,
Rassenmischehen
, pp. 11–26, at 13.

  80
. Christian Geulen, “The Common Grounds of Conflict: Racial Visions of World Order 1880–1940,” in: S. Conrad and Sachsenmaier,
Competing Visions
, pp. 69–96.

  81
. This is argued in detail in one of the great classics on the history of racist ideas: W. D. Jordan,
White over Black
. As so often, the influence of authors remains an open question. Did Long really represent “planters” or even “the British public”? Drescher,
From Slavery to Freedom
, p. 285, casts doubt on the latter.

  82
. Patterson,
Slavery and Social Death
, p. 61.

  83
. Roediger,
Working toward Whiteness
, p. 11; on the history of racial classification, see esp. Banton,
Racial Theories
and, for a very general survey, Fluehr-Lobban,
Race
, pp. 74–103.

  84
. Augstein,
Race
, p. xviii.

  85
. The dispute between Gobineau and Tocqueville in the 1850s elucidated the alternatives with unparalleled clarity. See Ceaser,
Reconstructing America
, ch. 6.

  86
. Banton,
Racial Theories
, pp. 54–59.

  87
. There is a good survey of nineteenth-century biological theories of race in Graves,
Emperor's New Clothes
, pp. 37–127.

  88
. Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 226f., 232f., 241.

  89
. Ballentyne,
Orientalism
, p. 44. Still fundamental are Poliakov,
Aryan Myth
; Olender,
Languages of Paradise
; Trautmann,
Aryans
.

  90
. Lorcin,
Imperial Identities
; Streets,
Martial Races
.

  91
. Hannaford,
Race
, pp. 348ff.

  92
. Lauren,
Power and Prejudice
, pp.44ff.; Gollwitzer,
Die gelbe Gefahr
; Mehnert,
Deutschland
; Geulen,
Wahlverwandte
, pt. 2.

  93
. D. B. Davis,
Inhuman Bondage
, p. 76.

  94
. See
chapter 8
, above.

  95
. L. D. Baker,
From Savage to Negro
, pp. 99ff.

  96
. Barkan,
Retreat of Scientific Racism
.

  97
. Torpey,
Invention of the Passport
, pp. 91f.

  98
. For a thorough account mainly focused on Europe, see Caplan and Torpey,
Documenting Individual Identity
.

  99
. Noiriel,
Immigration
, pp. 135ff.

100
. Gosewinkel,
Einbürgern
, pp. 325–27.

101
. For a broad overview, see Lake and Reynolds,
Global Colour Line
.

102
. See Reimers,
Other Immigrants
, pp. 44–70. Also Takaki,
Strangers
; Gyory,
Closing the Gate
; and, on the Chinese experience, E. Lee,
At America's Gates
.

103
. D. R. Walker,
Anxious Nation
, p. 98.

104
. A good account is Markus,
Australian Race Relations
.

105
. Jacobson,
Whiteness
.

106
. Jacobson,
Barbarian Virtues
, pp. 261f.

107
. Dikötter,
Discourse of Race
.

108
. Rhoads,
Manchus and Han
, p. 204.

109
. Katz,
Out of the Ghetto
, p. 1. A more recent account, focused especially on political emancipation, is Vital,
A People Apart
.

110
. For a general history of the Jewish reform movement, see M. A. Meyer,
Response to Modernity
.

111
. A. Green,
Moses Montefiore
, p. 2.

112
. Katz,
Prejudice
, pp. 245–72.

113
. There is a summary of the extensive literature in Noiriel,
Immigration
, pp. 207–86.

114
. Research on Russian anti-Semitism is summarized in Marks,
How Russia Shaped the Modern World
, pp. 140–75.

115
. Sorin,
A Time for Building
, p. 55; Dinnerstein,
Antisemitism in America
, pp. 35ff.

116
. See also Mosse,
Final Solution
, p. 168.

117
. Shaw,
Jews of the Ottoman Empire
, pp. 187–206.

118
. Fink,
Defending the Rights of Others
, pp. 5–38.

119
. On the geographical distribution of the world's Jewish population, see Karady,
Jews of Europe
, pp. 44f.

120
. Reinhard Rürup, “Jewish Emancipation in Britain and Germany,” in: Brenner et al.,
Two Nations
, pp. 49–61.

121
. Goodman and Miyazawa,
Jews in the Japanese Mind
, p. 81.

122
. Poliakov,
Aryan Myth
, p. 232.

123
. Fredrickson,
Racism
, p. 72.

124
. Geulen,
Wahlverwandte
, p. 197.

125
. A cross-European perspective is offered in Brustein,
Roots of Hate
.

126
. Haumann,
East European Jews
, pp. 78f.

127
. Ibid., pp. 171f.; Weeks,
From Assimilation
, pp. 71ff.

128
. Love,
Race over Empire
, pp. 1–5, 25f.

129
. P. A. Kramer
, Blood of Government
, pp. 356f.

130
. Fredrickson,
Racism
, pp. 75–95.

131
. Ibid., p. 95.

132
. Vital,
A People Apart
, pp. 717f., 725.

133
. This is also the conclusion in Volkov,
Germans, Jews, and Anti-Semites
, pp. 67f.

CHAPTER XVIII: Religion

    1
. This chapter owes some important suggestions to an excellent sociological study: Beyer,
Religions
.

    2
. On “master narratives” in the modern history of religion, see D. Martin,
On Secularization
, pp. 123–40.

    3
. “Analogous transformation”: Beyer,
Religions
, p. 56; as a model of “entangled history” in Britain and India, see Veer,
Imperial Encounters
.

    4
. See the persuasive critique in Graf,
Wiederkehr
, pp. 233–38; and Beyer,
Religions
, pp. 62ff.

    5
. On the various concepts of religion in the “world religions,” see Haußig,
Religionsbegriff
.

    6
. J. R. Bowen,
Religions in Practice
, pp. 26f. (expanded).

    7
. On emerging Japanese notions of “religion,” see the brillant study: Josephson,
Invention of Religion in Japan
.

    8
. Jensen,
Manufacturing Confucianism
, p. 186.

    9
. Hsiao Kung-chuan,
A Modern China
, pp. 41–136.

  10
. Beyer,
Religions
, pp. 83f.

  11
. Masuzawa,
Invention
, pp. 17–20.

  12
. For nineteenth-century Europe and America, see Helmstadter,
Freedom and Religion
; and for a comparison between emancipatory processes, Liedtke and Wendehorst,
Emancipation
.

  13
. Cassirer,
Philosophy of the Enlightenment
, pp. 160ff.

  14
. Zagorin,
Toleration
, p. 306.

  15
. Sanneh,
Crown
, p. 9. Islamic and Christian proselytism is a central theme in Coquery-Vidrovitch,
Africa and the Africans
.

  16
. Lynch,
New Worlds
, p. 228.

  17
. The argument in this section focuses mainly on social history. There is a fine discussion of the history of ideas (taking France as its example) in Lepenies,
Sainte-Beuve
, pp. 317–62.

  18
. McLeod,
Secularisation
, p. 285.

  19
. Ibid., pp. 224, 262.

  20
. Browne,
Darwin
, vol. 2, p. 496.

  21
. Beales and Dawson,
Prosperity and Plunder
, pp. 291f.

  22
. Spiro,
Buddhism
, p. 284.

  23
. Joseph Fletcher, “Ch'ing Inner Asia,” in: Fairbank and Twitchett,
Cambridge History of China
, vol. 10, pp. 35–106, at 99.