The Transformation of the World (222 page)

  59
. Daumard,
Les bourgeois
, p. 261.

  60
. See J. L. West and Petrov,
Merchant Moscow
—including the photographs.

  61
. Cindy S. Aron, “The Evolution of the Middle Class,” in Barney,
Companion
, pp. 178–91, at 179.

  62
. For England, see Perkin,
Origins
, pp. 252f.

  63
. Hartmut Kaelble, “Social Particularities of Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Europe,” in idem,
European Way
, pp. 276–317, at 282–84.

  64
. For Europe (Germany, England, France, Belgium), see Crossick and Haupt,
Petite Bourgeoisie
.

  65
. Farr,
Artisans
, pp. 10ff.

  66
. Pilbeam,
Middle Classes
, p. 172.

  67
. Goblot,
Barrière et niveau
, p. 40.

  68
. R. Ross,
Status
. Other examples of “Victorian values” among the educated African elite (in this case in Lagos) may be found in K. Mann,
Marrying Well
.

  69
. Jürgen Kocka, “Bürgertum und bürgerliche Gesellschaft im 19. Jahrhundert. Europäische Entwicklungen und deutscher Eigensinn,” in: Kocka and Frevert,
Bürgertum
, vol. 1, pp. 11–76, at 12; Jürgen Kocka, “The Middle Classes in Europe,” in: Kaelble,
European Way
, pp. 15–43, at 16. These are two fundamental texts on the subject.

  70
. Quoted in Blumin,
Emergence of the Middle Class
, p. 2. This contemporary idealization recalls, across a large space of time, the wishful image of a “classless civil society” that Lothar Gall has traced in detail for early nineteenth-century Germany.

  71
. Beckert,
Monied Metropolis
.

  72
. This would require a number of case studies as high in quality as Pernau,
Bürger mit Turban
.

  73
. Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism
, vol. 2, still offers a first overview of this field.

  74
. A. Adu Boahen, “New Trends and Processes in Africa in the Nineteenth Century,” in Ajayi,
General History of Africa
, pp. 40–63, at 48–52.

  75
. Long known in the case of West Africa, this is now apparent also for a less noticed emporium; see G. Campbell,
Imperial Madagascar
, pp. 161–212.

  76
. Bergère,
Golden Age
.

  77
. Trocki,
Opium and Empire
.

  78
. Berend,
History Derailed
, p. 196.

  79
. See the splendid monograph: Horton and Middleton,
The Swahili
.

  80
. Markovits et al.,
Modern India
, pp. 320, 325f.; Cheong,
Hong Merchants
, pp. 303f.

  81
. Jayawardena,
Nobodies
, pp. 68ff.; Freitag,
Arabische Buddenbrooks
, pp. 214f.

  82
. See also
chapter 14
, above.

  83
. Bergère,
Golden Age
, p. 40; Hao,
Commercial Revolution
.

  84
. Dobbin,
Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities
.

  85
. Györgi Ránki, “Die Entwicklung des ungarischen Bürgertums vom späten 18. zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert,” in: Kocka and Frevert,
Bürgertum
, vol. 1, pp. 247–65, at 249, 253, 256.

  86
. Robert E. Elson, “International Commerce, the State and Society: Economic and Social Change,” in Tarling,
Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
, vol. 2, pp. 131–95, at 174.

  87
. Dobbin,
Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities
, pp. 47, 69, 171.

  88
. Frangakis-Syrett,
Greek Merchant Community
, p. 399.

  89
. As early as 1740, though, a massacre of Chinese in Java had had similar causes.

  90
. See the remarks on the business policy of North Indian merchant families in Bayly,
Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars
, pp. 394–426.

  91
. For a fine example, see Hanssen,
Beirut
, pp. 213–35. See also
chapter 6
, above.

  92
. See the fundamental considerations in Watenpaugh,
Being Modern
, pp. 14f.

  93
. Rankin,
Elite Activism
, pp. 136ff.; Kwan,
Salt Merchants
, pp. 89–103; Freitag,
Indian Ocean Migrants
, pp. 9, 238–42.

  94
. Rowe,
Hankow
, vol. 1, pp. 289ff.

  95
. On the semantics, the key work is still Engelhardt, “
Bildungsbürgertum
.” Although it had many precursors, the actual concept goes back only to the 1920s. See also Conze et al.,
Bildungsbürgertum
, especially the various cross-European comparisons in volume 1.

  96
. Peter Lundgreen, “Bildung und Bürgertum,” in idem,
Sozial-und Kulturgeschichte
, pp. 173–94, at 173.

  97
. Dietrich Geyer, “Zwischen Bildungsbürgertum und Intelligenzija: Staatsdienst und akademische Professionalisierung im vorrevolutionären Russland,” in: Conze et al.,
Bildungsbürgertum
, vol. 1, pp. 207–30, at 229.

  98
. Lufrano,
Honorable Merchants
, pp. 177ff. The term “self-cultivation,” which Lufrano uses for Chinese merchants, reminds one of a classic book on the idea of
Bildung
: Bruford,
German Tradition of Self-Cultivation
. For Japan, see Gilbert Rozman, “Social Change,” in: J. W. Hall et al.,
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, pp. 499–568, at 513. The question is whether eighteenth-century merchant culture was more autonomous, or less “embedded,” in Japan than in China.

  99
. See, e.g., Schwarcz,
Chinese Enlightenment
.

100
. Kreuzer,
Bohème
, is an important work for both social and cultural history.

101
. Buettner,
Empire Families
; anecdotally Yalland,
Boxwallahs
; and, for a comparison with the completely nonaristocratic Chinese treaty ports, Bickers,
Britain in China
.

102
. This is well researched in Butcher,
British in Malaya
.

103
. Ruedy,
Modern Algeria
, pp. 99f.

104
. Quataert,
Ottoman Empire
, p. 153.

105
. Ibid., p. 146. See also
chapter 5
, above.

106
. The most recent general account of this international financial world is Cassis,
Capitals of Capital
, pp. 74ff.

107
. I refer to an interesting thesis in C. A. Jones,
International Business
.

108
. Wray,
Mitsubishi
, p. 513.

109
. Model analyses of this process are (for France) Garrioch,
Formation of the Parisian Bourgeoisie
; and (for the United States) Blumin,
Emergence of the Middle Class
; and Bushman,
Refinement
.

110
. See the few hints in this direction in
chapter 16
, below.

111
. For many areas there is still no synthesis of research such as we have for Europe in Gestrich et al.,
Geschichte der Familie
.

112
. See the fine case studies in Clancy-Smith and Gouda,
Domesticating the Empire
.

CHAPTER XVI: Knowledge

    1
. On religion, see
chapter 18
, below.

    2
. Dülmen and Rauschenbach,
Macht des Wissens
.

    3
. H. Pulte, “Wissenschaft (III),” in:
Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie
, vol. 12, Darmstadt 2004, col. 921.

    4
. Burke,
Social History
, pp. 19f.

    5
. Fragner,
“Persophonie,”
p. 100.

    6
. Ostler,
Empires of the Word
, pp. 438f.

    7
. Ibid., pp. 411f.

    8
. Mendo Ze et al.,
Le Français
, p. 32.

    9
. B. Lewis,
Emergence
, p. 84.

  10
. Crystal,
English
, p. 73.

  11
. Ibid., p. 66.

  12
. The degree to which the speaking of English was “ordered” from above is discussed at length in Phillipson,
Linguistic Imperialism
.

  13
. Zastoupil and Moir,
Great Indian Education Debate
, esp. the introduction (pp. 1–72).

  14
. Crystal,
English
, pp. 24ff. gives a (rather superficial) region-by-region overview.

  15
. B. Lewis,
Emergence
, pp. 88, 118.

  16
. Adamson,
China's English
, pp. 25f.

  17
. Keene,
Japanese Discovery of Europe
, pp. 78f.

  18
. Elman,
Modern Science
, pp. 86f.

  19
. B. Lewis,
Emergence
, p. 87.

  20
. This moment in intellectual history was identified in Schwab,
Oriental Renaissance
.

  21
. Ostler,
Empires of the Word
, p. 503.

  22
. H. M. Scott,
Birth
, pp. 122f.; Haarmann,
Weltgeschichte der Sprachen
, p. 314.

  23
. See the overview in Haarmann,
Weltgeschichte der Sprachen
, pp. 309–34.

  24
. Bolton,
Chinese Englishes
, pp. 146–96.

  25
. Marr,
Reflections from Captivity
, pp. 30, 35.

  26
. Pollock,
Cosmopolitan Vernacular
.

  27
. Sassoon,
Culture
, pp. 21–40, on the rise of national languages in Europe.

  28
. Vincent,
Mass Literacy
, pp. 138f., 140.

  29
. Janich and Greule,
Sprachkulturen
, p. 110.

  30
. M. C. Meyer and Sherman,
Course of Mexican History
, p. 457.

  31
. For an introduction to the problem, see Ernst Hinrichs, “Alphabetisierung. Lesen und Schreiben,” in Dülmen and Rauschenbach,
Macht des Wissens
, pp. 539–61, esp. 539–42. The theoretical complexity of the theme is shown in Barton,
Literacy
.

  32
. See Graff,
Legacies
, p. 262—the unsurpassed standard work on the subject.

  33
. Tortella,
Patterns of Economic Retardation
, p. 11 (Tab. 6).

  34
. Vincent,
Mass Literacy
, p. 11. There are still not many national studies comparable in quality to Brooks,
When Russia Learned to Read
.

  35
. Graff,
Legacies
, p. 295 (Tab. 7–2).

  36
. With reference to Europe in general: Sassoon,
Culture
, pp. 93–105.

  37
. For Germany, cf. Engelsing,
Analphabetentum
. A number of works by Roger Chartier and Martyn Lyons cover the field in France.

  38
. M. Lyons,
Readers
, pp. 87–91.

  39
. Starrett,
Putting Islam to Work
, p. 36.

  40
. Vincent,
Mass Literacy
, p. 56.

  41
. Gillian Sutherland, “Education,” in F. M. L. Thompson,
Cambridge Social History of Britain
, vol. 3, pp. 119–69, at 145.

  42
. See the estimates for 1882 in Easterlin,
Growth Triumphant
, p. 61 (Tab. 5.1.).

  43
. William J. Gilmore-Lehne, “Literacy,” in Cayton,
Encyclopedia
, vol. 3, pp. 2413–26, at 2419f., 2422.

  44
. Graff,
Legacies
, p. 365.

  45
. Ayalon,
Political Journalism
, p. 105.

  46
. Gilbert Rozman, “Social Change,” in J. W. Hall et al.,
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, pp. 499–568, at 560f.

  47
. Rubinger,
Popular Literacy
, p. 184.

  48
. Pepper,
Radicalism
, p. 52.

  49
. Rawski,
Education
, p. 23.

  50
. P. Bailey,
Reform the People
, pp. 31–40.

  51
. M. E. Robinson,
Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey
, p. 11.

  52
. This remained the case until the end of the system; see Elman,
Civil Examinations
, pp. 597–600.

  53
. Alexander Woodside, “The Divorce between the Political Center and Educational Creativity in Late Imperial China,” in: Elman and Woodside,
Education and Society
, pp. 458–92, at 461.

  54
.
BBC News Service,
April 2, 2007.

  55
. Nipperdey,
Napoleon to Bismarck
, p. 398.

  56
. Karl-Ernst Jeismann, “Schulpolitik, Schulverwaltung, Schulgesetzgebung,” in: C. Berg et al.,
Handbuch
, vol. 3, pp. 105–22, at 119.

  57
. An influential Foucault-oriented analysis of Egypt along these lines is T. Mitchell,
Colonising Egypt
. But see the criticisms of such an approach in Starrett,
Putting Islam to Work
, pp. 57–61.

  58
. Bouche,
Histoire de la colonisation française
, pp. 257–59.

  59
. Wesseling,
European Colonial Empires
, p. 60.

  60
. D. Kumar,
Science
, pp. 151–79; Ghosh,
History of Education
, pp. 86, 121f.; Arnold,
Science
, p. 160; Bhagavan,
Sovereign Spheres
.