The Joy of Pain (38 page)

19
. Elster (1998), p. 165.

20
. Ibid., p. 172.

21
. Smith & Kim (2007).

22
. Ben-Ze'ev (2000); Smith (1991); Smith, Parrott, Ozer, & Moniz (1994).

23
. Heider (1958), p. 287.

24
. Aristotle (1941), Rhetoric, in R. McKeaon (Ed.),
The basic works of Aristotle,
New York: Random House (originally published in 322 BC); Salovey, P., & Rodin, J. (1984), Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47
, 780–792; Schaubroeck, J., & Lam, S. K. (2004), Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees' invidious reactions to promotees,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94,
33–47.

25
. Forrester, J. (1997),
Dispatches for the Freud wars,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Kristjansson (2005).

26
. Smith (1991).

27
. Khayyám, O. (1952).
The rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám
(E. Fitzgerald, Trans.) Garden City, NY: Doubleday, p. 170 (originally published in 1858); I also use this and other similar examples in Smith, R. H. (1990), Envy and the sense of injustice, in P. Salovey (Ed.),
Psychology perspective on jealousy and envy
(pp. 79–99), New York: Guilford.

28
. Heider (1958), p. 289.

29
. Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2008), The evolutionary psychology of envy, in R. H. Smith (Ed.),
Envy: Theory and research
(pp. 60–70), New York: Oxford University Press, p. 60.

30
. Quoted in Leach, C. W., & Spears, R. (2008), “A vengefulness of the impotent”: The pain of ingroup inferiority and
schadenfreude
toward successful outgroups,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95
, 1383–1396, p. 1384; Nietzsche (1967), p. 37.

31
. Krizan, Z., & Johar, O. (2012), Envy divides the two faces of narcissism,
Journal of Personality, 80
, 1415–1451.

32
. Hotchkiss, S. (2003),
Why is it always about you?: The seven deadly sins of narcissism,
New York: Free Press, p. 16.

33
. Forman (1984).

34
. See Smith (2004) for another extended example of transmuted envy, this taken from Shakespeare's
Julius Caesar
.

35
. Elster (1998); Smith (2004); Simth & Kim (2007); Sundie, Ward, Beal, Chin, & Oneto (2009).

36
. Russo, R. (2008),
Bridge of sighs
, New York: Vintage.

37
. Ibid., p. 86.

38
. Ibid.

39
. Stephen Thielke, personal communication. Instead, envy would be of the “benign” kind. See van de Ven, Zeelenberg, & Pieters (2009).

 

1
. Marrus, M. R. (1997),
The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial 1945–46: A documentary history
, New York: Bedford Books, p. 207.

2
. Gilligan, J. (1996),
Violence: Reflections on a national epidemic
, New York: Vintage Books.

3
. Twain, M. (1898), Concerning the Jews,
Harper's Magazine
, March 1898;
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1898twain-jews.asp
, retrieved April 20, 2013.

4
. Here is a sample: Bauer, Y. (1982),
A history of the Holocaust
, New York: Franklin Watts; Browning, C. R. (1993),
Ordinary men: Reserve police battalion 101 and the final solution in Poland
, New York: Harper Perennial; Evans, R. J. (2003),
The coming of the Third Reich
, New York: Penguin; Evans, R. J. (2005),
The Third Reich in power
, New York: Penguin; Evans, R. J. (2008),
The Third Reich at war
, New York: Penguin; Gilbert, M. (2000),
Never again: The history of the Holocaust
, New York: Universe; Goldhagen, D. J. (1997),
Hitler's willing executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust,
New York: Vintage; Hildberg, R. (2003),
The destruction of the European Jews
, New Haven: Yale University Press (originally published in 1961); Prager, D., & Telushkin, J. (2003),
Why the Jews? The reason for anti-Semitism
, New York: Touchstone; Rosenbaum, R. (1998),
Explaining Hitler: The search for the origins of his evil
, New York: Random House; Wistrich, R. S. (2010),
A lethal obsession: Anti-Semitism from antiquity to the global jihad
, New York: Random House.

5
. Kubizek, A. (1955), The young Hitler I knew;
http://www.faem.com/books/
, retrieved June 14, 2012.

6
. Hitler, A. (1925),
Mein kampf
(trans. Ralph Manheim), Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, p. 55.

7
. Ibid., p. 52.

8
. Ibid., p. 52.

9
. Ibid. p. 10.

10
. Epstein, J. (2003),
Envy: The seven deadly sins
, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 60.

11
. Hitler (1925), p. 58.

12
. Ibid., p. 56.

13
. Ibid., p. 58. The Jewish population of Vienna, absorbed by Germany in the spring of 1938, was larger than in German cities proper.

14
. Ibid., p. 57.

15
. Ibid., p. 61.

16
. Ibid., p. 62.

17
. Ibid.

18
. Ibid., p. 63.

19
.
People Magazine
interview, April 12, 1976, vol. 5, no. 14. Also, in his memoirs,
Inside the Third Reich
, Speer described Adolf Hitler's sense of humor to be almost entirely based on
schadenfreude
. “Hitler had no humor. He left joking to others, although he could laugh loudly, abandonedly, sometimes literally writhing with laughter. Often he would wipe tears from his eyes during such spasms. He liked laughing, but it was always laughter at the expense of others,” Speer, A. (1969),
Inside the Third Reich
(trans. Richard and Clara Winston), Bronx, NY: Ishi Press, p 123.

20
. Kubizek (1955).

21
. Ibid.

22
. Freud, S. (1939),
Moses and monotheism
, New York: Random House, p. 116.

23
. Toland, J. (1976),
Adolf Hitler
, New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, p. 701.

24
. Hitler ended his account of how he came to hate the Jews by writing: “Eternal Nature inexorably avenges the infringement of her commands. Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator:
by defending myself against the Jews, I am fighting for the work of the Lord
,” Hitler (1925), p. 65.

25
. The role of envy in anti-Semitism has been addressed by many. For example, the French scholar Bernard Lazare, who became heavily involved in the Dreyfus affair, wrote what is considered to be a remarkably impartial analysis of anti-Semitism and included envy as an important factor. Here is a selection from his book,
Antisemitism: Its history and causes
: “Everywhere they wanted to remain Jews, and everywhere they were granted the privilege of establishing a State within the State. By virtue of these privileges and exemptions, and immunity from taxes, they would soon rise above the general condition of the citizens of the municipalities where they resided; they had better opportunities for trade and accumulation of wealth, whereby they excited jealousy and hatred. Thus, Israel's
attachment to its law was one of the first causes of its unpopularity, whether because it derived from that law benefits and advantages which were apt to excite envy, or because it prided itself upon the excellence of its Torah and considered itself above and beyond other peoples,” pp. 6–7,
http://www.archive.org/details/Anti-semitismItsHistoryAndCausesByBernardLazare
. Freud suggests the distinctiveness of Jews and then notes: “The second peculiarity has an even more pronounced effect. It is that they defy oppression, that even the most cruel persecutions have not succeeded in exterminating them. On the contrary, they show a capacity for holding their own in practical life and, where they are admitted, they make valuable contributions to the surrounding civilization. The deeper motives of anti-Semitism have their roots in times long past; they come from the unconscious, and I am quite prepared to hear that what I am going to say will at first appear incredible. I venture to assert that the jealousy which the Jews evoked in other peoples by maintaining that they were the first-born, favourite child of God the Father has not yet been overcome by those others, just as if the latter had given credence to the assumption,” Freud (1939), p. 116. Freud argued that the notion of Jews being a chosen people led to jealous and rivalrous feelings in non-Jews. Nietzsche, despite his influence on so many Nazi beliefs, was appalled by anti-Semitism, and wrote: “The struggle against the Jews has always been a symptom of the worst characters, those more envious and more cowardly. He who participates in it now must have much of the disposition of the mob.” Quoted in Santaniello, W. (1997), A post-holocaust re-examination of Nietzsche and the Jews, in J. Golomb (Ed.),
Nietzsche and Jewish culture
(pp. 21–54), New York: Routledge. More recent examples are Prager & Telushkin (2003); Patterson, C. (2000),
Anti-Semitism: The road to the holocaust and beyond
, Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.com; Aly, G. (2011),
Warum die Deutschen? Warum die Juden? Gleichheit, Neid und Rassenhass 1800 1933
, Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag; Gilder, G. (2009),
The Israel test
, New York: Richard Vigilante Books; McKale, D. M. (2006),
Hitler's shadow war: The Holocaust and World War II
, New York: Taylor Trade Publishing.

26
. Prager & Telushkin (2003), p. 30.

27
. Also see Aly (2011).

28
. Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2008), Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the BIAS Map, in M. P. Zanna (Ed.),
Advances in experimental social psychology
(vol. 40, pp. 61–149), Thousand Oaks, CA: Academic Press; Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002), A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82
, 878–902; Glick, P. (2002), Sacrificial lambs dressed in wolves' clothing: Envious prejudice, ideology, and the scapegoating of Jews, in L. S. Newman & R. Erber (Eds.),
Understanding genocide: The social psychology of the Holocaust
(pp. 113–142), Oxford: Oxford University Press; Glick, P. (2008), When neighbors blame neighbors: Scapegoating and
the breakdown of ethnic relations, in V. M. Esses & R. A. Vernon (Eds.),
Explaining the breakdown of ethnic relations: Why neighbors kill
(pp. 123–146), Malden, MA: Blackwell.

29
. Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick (2008); Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu (2002). Interestingly, this group is not the prototype of the kind usually focused on when we think of prejudice. Anti-black prejudice by majority whites, for example, stereotypically assumes low status and perhaps some degree of competition, if resources are being taken away, say, through affirmative action. But this condition predicts feeling ranging from pity to contempt, as perceived threat increases. These are very different feelings from envy, and the implications are profound. Hitler may have been disgusted by Gypsies, but he hated the Jews.

30
. Segel, B. W. (1996),
A lie and a libel: The history of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion,
R. S. Levy (Ed.) (trans. R. S. Levy), Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

31
. The classic example is a white person in the previously segregated South who feels threatened by a loss in status and therefore develops hatred toward blacks.

32
. Bachrach, S., & Luckert, S. (2009),
State of deception: The power of Nazi propaganda
, New York: W. W. Norton.

33
. Epstein (2003). No wonder, as Joseph Epstein points out, that anti-Semitism “has historically taken two forms; one in which the Jews are castigated for being inferior, and another in which they are resented for being superior,” p. 165; Epstein, J. (2002),
Snobbery: The American version
, New York: Houghton Mifflin.

34
. Glick makes the point that few Germans would admit to having hostile envy toward Jews. It is the nature of envy to find other plausible causes to justify ill will. Here, conveniently, the other stereotypes of clever, underhanded, dirty, and so on now combine with the perception of threat, both to the country's national goals and purity of race. Thus, the use of terms suggesting “cleverness” rather than the kind of intelligence to be admired.

35
. Evans (2005).

36
. Cikara, M., & Fiske, S. T. (2012), Stereotypes and
schadenfreude
: Affective and physiological markers of pleasure at outgroups' misfortune,
Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3
, 63–71.

37
. Metaxas, E. (2010),
Bonhoeffer: Pastor, martyr, prophet, spy
, Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, p. 176.

38
. Toland (1976), p. 505.

39
. Goldhagen (1996); Klee, E., Dressen, W., & Riess, V. (1991) (Eds.),
“The good old days”: The Holocaust as seen by its perpetrators and bystanders
(trans. Deborah Burnstone), Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky; Billig, M. (2005),
Laughter and ridicule: Towards a social critique of humour
, London: Sage.

40
. McKale (2006), p. 147.

41
. Spears, R., & Leach, C. W. (2008), Why neighbors don't stop the killing: The role of group-based
schadenfreude
, in V. Esses & R. A. Vernon (Eds.),
Explaining the breakdown of ethnic relations: Why neighbors kill
(pp. 93–120), Malden: Blackwell Publishing.