The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (122 page)

24.
See again Joll,
Europe Since 1870
, pp. 262ff; Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des Weltpolitischen Denkens
, vol. 2, pp. 538ff.; A. Hamilton,
The Appeal of Fascism
(London, 1971): P. Hayes,
Fascism
(London, 1973), passim; R.A.L. Waite,
Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany
(Cambridge, Mass., 1952), passim; J. Diehl,
Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany
(Bloomington, Ind., 1977).

25.
D. Caute,
The Fellow Travellers
(London, 1973); Northedge and Wells,
Britain and Soviet Communism
, chs. 6–8.

26.
For what follows, see the excellent analysis in Barraclough,
Introduction to Contemporary History, ch
. 6, “The Revolt Against the West”; and the maps in Barraclough (ed.),
Atlas of World History
, pp. 248, 260–61. See also Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des weltpolitischen Denkens
, vol. 2, pp. 575ff;
NCMH
, vol. 12, chs. 10–12; H. Bull and A. Watson,
The Expansion of International Society
(Oxford, 1984), espec. pt. 3; R. F. Holland,
European Decolonization 1918–1981
(London, 1985), ch. 1; H. Griml,
Decolonization: The British, French, Dutch, and Belgian Empires 1919–1963
(London, 1978) chs. 1–3.

27.
For a good example on the British side, see B. R. Tomlinson,
The Political Economy of the Raj 1914–1947
(Cambridge, 1979), passim; more generally, Tomlinson, “The Contraction of England: National Decline and the Loss of Empire,”
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
, vol. 11 (1982), pp. 58–72; Thornton,
Imperial Idea and its Enemies
, chs. 4–6; Beloff,
Imperial Sunset
, vol. 1, ch. 6.

28.
Barraclough,
Introduction to Contemporary History
, pp. 156–58.

29.
Storry,
Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia
, pp. 107ff; Grenville,
World History of the Twentieth Century
, pp. 117ff; Keylor,
Twentieth-Century World
, pp. 229ff; Gollwitzer,
Geschichte des weltpolitischen Denkens
, vol. 2, pp. 575ff.

30.
A. Iriye,
After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East 1921–1931
(New York, 1978 edn.), passim.

31.
Kiernan,
European Empires from Conquest to Collapse, ch
. 13;
NCMH
, vol. 12, pp. 319, 324–25; C. M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner,
The Climax of French Imperial Expansion 1914–1924
(Stanford, Calif., 1981), p. 246.

32.
Howard,
Continental Commitment
, pp. 56ff; B. Bond,
British Military Policy Between the Two World Wars
(Oxford, 1980), chs. 1, 3–4.

33.
For discussions of this “continuity” in German policy after 1919, see the general treatments in Calleo,
German Problem Reconsidered
, passim; Gruner,
Die deutsche Frage
, pp. 126ff; Hillgruber,
Germany and the Two World Wars
, passim. See also two important new works: G. Stoakes,
Hitler and the Quest for World Dominion: Nazi Ideology and Foreign Policy in the 1920s
(Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, 1986); M. Lee and W. Michalka,
German Foreign Policy 1917–1933: Continuity or Break?
(Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, 1987).

34.
Taylor,
Origins of the Second World War
, p. 48.

35.
Ibid. For other surveys of the post-1919 “balance,” see DePorte,
Europe Between the Super-Powers, ch
. 3; Thomson,
Europe Since Napoleon
, pp. 622ff.; Ross,
Great Powers and the Decline of the European States System
, chs. 3–6.

36.
E. M. Bennett,
German Rearmament and the West, 1932–1933
(Princeton, N.J., 1979), pp. 92ff, is best here.

37.
P. Wandycz,
France and Her Eastern Allies 1919–25
(Minneapolis, Minn., 1962), passim; and the classic older work A. Wolfers,
Britain and France Between Two Wars
(New York, 1966 edn.), especially ch. 8. Later French efforts to contain Germany in eastern Europe are explored in L. Radice,
Prelude to Appeasement, East Central European Diplomacy in the early 1930s
(New York, 1981), chs. 3–4.

38.
W. N. Medlicott,
British Foreign Policy Since Versailles, 1919–1963
(London, 1968), pp. 61–63; Ross,
Great Powers
, p. 57; A. Orde,
Britain and International Security 1920–1926
(London, 1978), passim. For the continuity of this policy, see P. W. Schroeder, “Munich and the British Tradition,”
Historical Journal
, vol. 19 (1976), pp. 223–43.

39.
A. Teichova,
An Economic Background to Munich
(Cambridge, 1974) passim; D. Kaiser,
Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War
(Princeton, N.J., 1980), passim; B. J. Wendt, “England und der deutsche ‘Drang nach Südosten,’ ” in I. Geiss and B. J. Wendt (eds.),
Deutschland in der Weltpolitik des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts
(Düsseldorf, 1973), pp. 483–512.

40.
Quoted in Northedge,
Troubled Giant
, p. 220. There is a good and succinct survey of the League’s activities in
NCMH
, vol. 12, ch. 9; and in Ross,
Great Powers, ch
. 7.

41.
E. H. Carr,
The Twenty Years Crisis 1919–1939
(London, 1939); Sontag,
Broken World
, passim; A. Adamthwaite,
The Lost Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918–1939
(London, 1980), passim.

42.
D. Mack Smith,
Mussolini: A Biography
(New York, 1982) is a good portrayal of the man, though less so of Italian politics and economy under him. For those aspects, see M. Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed 1939–1941
(Cambridge, 1982), ch. 1; J. Whittam, “The Italian General Staff and the Coming of the Second World War,” in A. Preston (ed.),
General Staffs and Diplomacy Before the Second World War
(London, 1978), pp. 77–97; A. Raspin, “Wirtschaftliche und politische Aspekte der italienischen Aufrüstung Anfang der dreissiger Jahre bis 1940,” in F. Forstmeier and H. E. Volkmann (eds.),
Wirtschaft und Rüstung am Vorabend des Zweiten Weltkrieges
(Düsseldorf, 1975), pp. 202–21; B. R. Sullivan, “The Italian Armed Forces, 1918–1940,” in Millett and Murray (eds.),
Military Effectiveness
, vol. 2 (forthcoming).

43.
S. Ricossa, “Italy,” in Cipolla (ed.),
Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 272ff; R. Higham,
Air Power: A Concise History
(Manhattan, Kan., 1984 edn.), p. 48; J. W. Thompson,
Italian Civil and Military Aircraft 1930–1945
(Fallbrook, Calif., 1963).

44.
Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed
, p. 20.

45.
Quoted from Ricossa, “Italy,” p. 266; see also, Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed
, pp. 30–31, 43.

46.
Ricossa, “Italy,” p. 270.

47.
Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed, ch
. 1; Mack Smith,
Mussolini’s Roman Empire, ch
. 13; Raspin, “Wirtschaftliche und Politische Aspekte,” passim; W. Murray,
The Change in the European Balance of Power, 1938–1939
(Princeton, N.J., 1984), pp. 110ff.

48.
Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed
, p. 48.

49.
Ibid., p. 73. More generally, see McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, pp. 350ff; W. Murray, “German Air Power and the Munich Crisis,” in B. Bond and I. Roy (eds.),
War and Society
, vol. 1 (1976), pp. 107–18.

50.
The figures with neither parentheses nor brackets come from Hillman, “Comparative Strength of the Powers,” in A. J. Toynbee and F. T. Ashton-Gwatkin (eds.),
The World in 1939
(London, 1952), Table VI, p. 454, with currency conversions at the exchange rates he gives in the footnote. The figures in parentheses come from the “Correlates of War” print-out. One suspects that currency changes are responsible for some of the discrepancies, as are different national accounting practices. In Japan’s case the matter is further complicated by the distinctions made between regular and “extraordinary” defense spending, and between “forces in homeland” and “others” (e.g., China War). The figures in brackets are from K. Ohkawa and M. Shinohara (eds.),
Patterns of Japanese Economic Development
(New Haven, Conn., 1979), and do
not
include “others.”

51.
Mack Smith,
Mussolini’s Roman Empire
, pp. 177–78.

52.
Knox,
Mussolini Unleashed
, pp. 9–16; idem, “Conquest, Foreign and Domestic, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany”,
Journal of Modern History
, vol. 56 (1986), pp. 1–57.

53.
On this, Mack Smith,
Mussolini
, is overwhelming.

54.
See below, pp. 340–41.

55.
These racial/cultural attitudes are nicely covered in Thome,
The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941–1945
(London, 1985), passim. See also Storry,
Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia
, passim.

56.
Howarth,
Fighting Ships of the Rising Sun
, pp. 199ff.

57.
Allen,
Short Economic History of Modern Japan
, pp. lOOff.

58.
League of Nations,
World Economic Survey
(Geneva, 1945), Table III, p. 134.

59.
Allen,
Economic History
, pp. 101–13; Storry,
Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia
, p. 115.

60.
On this important theme, see espec. J. B. Crowley,
Japans Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy 1930–1958
(Princeton, N.J., 1966), passim; M. A. Barnhart, “Japan’s Economic Security and the Origins of the Pacific War,”
Journal of Strategic Studies
, vol. 4, no. 2 (1981), pp. 105–24; J. W. Morley (ed.),
Dilemmas of Growth in Prewar Japan
(Princeton, N.J., 1971).

61.
Allen,
Economic History of Modern Japan
, p. 141.

62.
Howarth,
Fighting Ships of the Rising Sun
, pt. 4; H. P. Willmott,
Empires in the Balance
(Annapolis, Md., 1982), ch. 3; A. J. Marder,
Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy
(Oxford, 1981), ch. 11; S. E. Pelz,
Race to Pearl Harbor
(Cambridge, Mass., 1974), espec. pts. 1 and 5; C. Bateson,
The War with Japan
(East Lansing, Mich., 1968), ch. 2.

63.
Willmott,
Empires in the Balance
, pp. 89ff; R. H. Spector,
Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan
(New York, 1985), chs. 2 and 4; S. Hayashi with A. Coox,
Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War
(Westport, Conn., 1978 reprint), ch. 1.

64.
Willmott,
Empires in the Balance
, p. 55; P. M. Kennedy, “Japan’s Strategic Decisions, 1939–45,” in Kennedy,
Strategy and Diplomacy 1870–1945
, pp. 182ff; C. Boyd, “Military Organizational Effectiveness: Imperial Japanese Armed Forces Between the World Wars,” in Millett and Murray (eds.),
Military Effectiveness
, vol. 2. Pelz,
Race to Pearl Harbor, ch
. 12, is very good on the army-navy quarrels. The China War itself is covered in F. Dorn,
The Sino-Japanese War 1937–1941
(New York, 1974).

65.
Barnhart, “Japan’s Economic Security,” pp. 112–16.

66.
Barnhart, “Japan’s Economic Security,” p. 114, from where the quote comes. See also B. Martin, “Aggressionspolitik als Mobilisierungsfaktor: Der militärische und wirtschaftliche Imperialismus Japans 1931 bis 1941,” in F. Forstmeier and H.-E. Volkmann (eds.),
Wirtschaft und Rüstung am Vorabend des Zweiten Weltkrieges
(Düsseldorf, 1975), pp. 234–35.

67.
Hayashi and Coox,
Kogun
, pp. 14–17; M. A. Barnhart, “Japanese Intelligence Before the Second World War,” in May (ed.),
Knowing One’s Enemies
, pp. 435–37; and espec. A. Coox,
Nomonhan, 2
vols. (Stanford, Calif., 1985), passim.

68.
Wright,
Study of War
, p. 672; Overy,
Air War
, p. 151; Bairoch, “World Industrialization Levels,” p. 299.