96. Henry Clay to Nicholas Biddle, April 10, 1833, Papers of Henry Clay , ed. Robert Seager II (Lexington, Ky., 1984), VIII, 637. My interpretation of the compromise follows that of Ratcliffe, “Nullification Crisis.”
97. See Merrill Peterson, Olive Branch and Sword: The Compromise of 1833 (Baton Rouge, 1982).
98. See John Larson, Internal Improvement (Chapel Hill, 2001), 187–193; John Van Atta, “Western Lands and the Political Economy of Henry Clay’s American System,” JER 21 (Winter 2001): 633–65.
99. Peterson, Olive Branch and Sword , 55.
100. Ellis, Union at Risk , 180.
101. AJ to Andrew J. Crawford, May 1, 1833, Correspondence of AJ , V, 72.
102. Presidential Messages , III, 4.
103. Remini, Jackson , III, 79.
1. Richard Hofstadter and Michael Wallace, eds., American Violence: A Documentary History (New York, 1971), 477.
2. Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (Hartford, Conn., 1864), I, 106, citing the memory of George Briggs. Although the story rests on a recollection long after the fact, it is consistent with Jackson’s behavior and quite in character. He wrote to John Coffee: “The decision of the Supreme court has fell still born, and they find that it cannot coerce Georgia to yield to its mandate” (April 7, 1832), Correspondence of AJ , IV, 430.
3. Quoted in John G. West Jr., The Politics of Revelation and Reason (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), 172. See also Edwin Miles, “After John Marshall’s Decision,” Journal of Southern History 39 (1973): 519–44.
4. Quoted in G. Edward White, The Marshall Court and Cultural Change (New York, 1991), 739.
5. Michael Birkner, “The New York–New Jersey Boundary Controversy, John Marshall, and the Nullification Crisis,” JER 12 (1992): 195–212.
6. Barron v. Baltimore , 32 U.S. (7 Peters) 243 (1833); Walker Mayo, “The Federal Bill of Rights and the States Before the Fourteenth Amendment” (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1993).
7. Joel Chandler Harris, Stories of Georgia (New York, 1896), 216.
8. H. David Williams, “The Cherokee Nation and Georgia’s Gold and Land Lotteries of 1832–33,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (1989): 519–39; Mary Young, “The Exercise of Sovereignty in Cherokee Georgia,” JER 10 (1990): 43–63.
9. Theda Perdue, “The Conflict Within: Cherokees and Removal,” in Cherokee Removal: Before and After , ed. William Anderson (Athens, Ga., 1991), 55–74. For more on Cherokee internal politics, see Gary Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief (Athens, Ga., 1978); Duane Champagne, Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments Among the Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek (Stanford, 1992).
10. See Mary Young, “Conflict Resolution on the Indian Frontier,” JER 16 (1996): 1–19.
11. Anthony Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail (New York, 1993), 88–94. Estimates of Cherokee deaths in connection with Removal range from 1,600 to 8,000. The controversy is summarized in Ronald Satz, “The Cherokee Trail of Tears,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (1989), 431–32; Russell Thornton, The Cherokees: A Population History (Lincoln, Neb., 1990), 73–77.
12. Both quotations are from Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Lincoln, Neb., 1984), I, 222. The frauds practiced on the Creeks are thoroughly documented in Mary Young, Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks: Indian Allotments in Alabama and Mississippi, 1830–1860 (Norman, Okla., 1961), 3–98.
13. Ronald Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln, Neb., 1975), 105.
14. Michael Doran, “Population Statistics of Nineteenth-Century Indian Territory,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 53 (1975–76): 497–500.
15. Satz, American Indian Policy , 103.
16. Anthony Wallace, “Introduction,” The Black Hawk War , ed. Ellen Whitney (Spring. field, Ill., 1970).
17. William Klunder, Lewis Cass (Kent, Ohio, 1996), 68–69; William Hagan, The Sac and Fox Indians (Norman, Okla., 1958), 153–91. Also see Black Hawk: An Autobiography, ed. Donald Jackson (Urbana, Ill., 1955).
18. See Ethan Allen Hitchcock, A Traveller in Indian Territory , rpt. with foreword by Michael Green (Norman, Okla., 1996).
19. Donald Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Lawrence, Kans., 1993), 116. Currency equivalent calculated using the Consumer Price Index in Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington, 1975).
20. Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, March 4, 1817, quoted in Robert Remini, The Legacy of Andrew Jackson (Baton Rouge, 1988), 49.
21. Harry Watson, Liberty and Power: The Politics of Jacksonian America (New York, 1990), 109.
22. See, e.g., Klunder, Lewis Cass , 70.
23. Explained in detail by Lindsay Robertson, Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands (Oxford, 2005).
24. Tim Garrison, The Legal Ideology of Removal (Athens, Ga., 2002), 234–45; John Farragher, “From Ethnic Mixing to Ethnic Cleansing,” in Contact Points , ed. Andrew Cayton and Fredrika Teute (Chapel Hill, 1998), 304–26.
26. See Young, Redskins, Ruffleshirts, and Rednecks , 172–90.
27. Martin Van Buren, Autobiography , ed. John Fitzpatrick (Washington, 1920), II, 295–96.
28. New York Times (national ed.), Nov. 11, 1992, A-7.
29. David Walker’s Appeal, in Four Articles , ed. Sean Wilentz (New York, 1995), 10. Walker’s allusion to Thomas Jefferson is based on the latter’s Notes on the State of Virginia (London, 1787), Query XIV.
30. David Walker’s Appeal , 11–12.
31. Clement Eaton, “A Dangerous Pamphlet in the Old South,” Journal of Southern History 2 (1936): 323–34; Peter Hinks, To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren (University Park, Pa., 1997), 25–40, 127–31. Boston city records list Walker’s cause of death as consumption; modern historians disagree over the likelihood of foul play.
32. For Garrison’s postmillennialism, see Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York, 1998), 125, 225.
33. Liberator 1 (Jan. 1, 1831): 1.
34. Kathleen D. McCarthy, American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society (Chicago, 2003), 135. The AASS membership statistics are given in Louis Filler, The Crusade Against Slavery (New York, 1960), 67.
35. William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), pt. ii, p. 5.
37. Vincent Harding, There Is a River (New York, 1981), 94.
38. Mayer, All on Fire , 195–200.
39. Sherman Savage, The Controversy over the Distribution of Abolitionist Literature (New York, 1938), 1–26, updated by Richard R. John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 257–63.
40. Amos Kendall to Andrew Jackson, Aug. 7, 1835, and Andrew Jackson to Amos Kendall, Aug. 9, 1835, Correspondence of AJ , V, 359–61; “Message to Congress” (Dec. 7, 1835), Presidential Messages , III, 1394–95.
41. Kendall’s instructions to the New York City postmaster were printed in Niles’ Weekly Register , Sept. 5, 1835.
42. See Richard R. John, “Hiland Hall’s Report on Incendiary Publications,” American Journal of Legal History 41 (1997): 94–125.
43. Amos Kendall to Alfred Huger, Aug. 4, 1835, Charleston Courier , Aug. 14, 1835. See also Clement Eaton, The Freedom-of-Thought Struggle in the Old South , rev. ed. (New York, 1964), 196–212; Susan Wyly-Jones, “The 1835 Anti-Abolition Meetings in the South,” Civil War History 47 (2001): 289–309.